Eye Tracking-Based Stress Classification of Athletes in Virtual Reality

Stoeve, Maike; Wirth, Markus; Farlock, Rosanna; Antunovic, André; Müller, Victoria; Eskofier, Bjoern M.

doi:10.1145/3530796

Cited by 13 publications

(11 citation statements)

References 42 publications

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“…To extract the pupil diameter and gaze behavior data, we performed pre-processing to account for noise and artifacts (due to blinking). Furthermore, we adapted the pipeline by Stoeve et al 69 based on the pipeline of Kret and Sjak-Shie 70 to enhance the signal quality of the pupil diameter data. We excluded all blinks and non-valid samples from both data groups.…”

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Virtual reality for assessing stereopsis performance and eye characteristics in Post-COVID

Mehringer,

Stoeve,

Krauss

et al. 2023

Sci Rep

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In 2019, we faced a pandemic due to the coronavirus disease (COVID-19), with millions of confirmed cases and reported deaths. Even in recovered patients, symptoms can be persistent over weeks, termed Post-COVID. In addition to common symptoms of fatigue, muscle weakness, and cognitive impairments, visual impairments have been reported. Automatic classification of COVID and Post-COVID is researched based on blood samples and radiation-based procedures, among others. However, a symptom-oriented assessment for visual impairments is still missing. Thus, we propose a Virtual Reality environment in which stereoscopic stimuli are displayed to test the patient’s stereopsis performance. While performing the visual tasks, the eyes’ gaze and pupil diameter are recorded. We collected data from 15 controls and 20 Post-COVID patients in a study. Therefrom, we extracted features of three main data groups, stereopsis performance, pupil diameter, and gaze behavior, and trained various classifiers. The Random Forest classifier achieved the best result with 71% accuracy. The recorded data support the classification result showing worse stereopsis performance and eye movement alterations in Post-COVID. There are limitations in the study design, comprising a small sample size and the use of an eye tracking system.

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Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Virtual reality for assessing stereopsis performance and eye characteristics in Post-COVID

Mehringer,

Stoeve,

Krauss

et al. 2023

Sci Rep

Self Cite

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“…Finally, emerging technologies may enable faster interventions in the future. For instance, Stoeve et al (2022) [ 64 ] created a VR-based stress test during a football goalkeeping scenario, and achieved a performance of 87.3% accuracy through the Random Forest classifier, claiming a comparable outcome to state-of-the-art approaches fusing eye tracking data and additional biosignals. Given the strong resurgence and further democratization of VR, Mixed Reality (MR) and augmented reality (AR) based eye-tracking applications in recent years [ 65 – 68 ], new opportunities may arise to accelerate pupillometric research in the context of real-time athlete monitoring.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Pupillometry as a new window to player fatigue? A glimpse inside the eyes of a Euro Cup Women’s Basketball team

Huyghe¹,

Calleja-González²,

Bird³

et al. 2024

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A rapidly emerging area of interest in high-pressure environments is that of pupillometry, where handheld quantitative infrared pupillometers (HQIPs) are able to track psycho-physiological fatigue in a fast, objective, valid, reliable, and non-invasive manner. However, the application of HQIPs in the context of athlete monitoring is yet to be determined. Therefore, the main aim of this pilot study was to examine the potential usefulness of a HQIP to monitor game-induced fatigue inside a professional female basketball setting by determining its (1) test-retest repeatability, (2) relationship with other biomarkers of game-induced fatigue, and (3) time-course from rested to fatigued states. A non-ophthalmologic practitioner performed a standardized Pupil Light Reflex (PLR) test using a medically graded HQIP among 9 professional female basketball players (2020–2021 Euro Cup) at baseline, 24-h pre-game (GD-1), 24-h post-game (GD+1) and 48-h post-game (GD+2). This was repeated over four subsequent games, equalling a total of 351 observations per eye. Two out of seven pupillometrics displayed good ICCs (0.95–0.99) (MinD and MaxD). Strong significant relationships were found between MaxD, MinD, and all registered biomarkers of game-induced fatigue (r = 0.69–0.82, p < 0.05), as well as between CV, MCV, and cognitive, lower-extremity muscle, and physiological fatigue markers (r = 0.74–0.76, p < 0.05). Three pupillometrics were able to detect a significant difference between rested and fatigued states. In particular, PC (right) (F = 5.173, η 2 = 0.115 p = 0.028) and MCV (right) (F = 3.976, η 2 = 0.090 p = 0.049) significantly decreased from baseline to GD+2, and LAT (left) (F = 4.023, η 2 = 0.109 p = 0.009) significantly increased from GD-1 to GD+2. HQIPs have opened a new window of opportunity for monitoring game-induced fatigue in professional female basketball players. However, future research initiatives across larger and heterogenous samples, and longer investigation periods, are required to expand upon these preliminary findings.

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“…Over the last decade, multiple studies have used VR environments to evoke emotional reactions [ 22 , 37 ]. Eye tracking [ 38 ], questionnaires [ 39 ], and respiration signals and ECG [ 40 ] are the most common measures used to assess stress in VR-related studies, while EEG has seldom been used [ 41 ]. One key explanation for this is that the combination of an EEG and a VR headset is not easily achievable due to device placement overlapping restrictions.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Assessing Electroencephalography as a Stress Indicator: A VR High-Altitude Scenario Monitored through EEG and ECG

Aspiotis

Miltiadous

Kalafatakis

et al. 2022

Sensors

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Over the last decade, virtual reality (VR) has become an increasingly accessible commodity. Head-mounted display (HMD) immersive technologies allow researchers to simulate experimental scenarios that would be unfeasible or risky in real life. An example is extreme heights exposure simulations, which can be utilized in research on stress system mobilization. Until recently, electroencephalography (EEG)-related research was focused on mental stress prompted by social or mathematical challenges, with only a few studies employing HMD VR techniques to induce stress. In this study, we combine a state-of-the-art EEG wearable device and an electrocardiography (ECG) sensor with a VR headset to provoke stress in a high-altitude scenarios while monitoring EEG and ECG biomarkers in real time. A robust pipeline for signal clearing is implemented to preprocess the noise-infiltrated (due to movement) EEG data. Statistical and correlation analysis is employed to explore the relationship between these biomarkers with stress. The participant pool is divided into two groups based on their heart rate increase, where statistically important EEG biomarker differences emerged between them. Finally, the occipital-region band power changes and occipital asymmetry alterations were found to be associated with height-related stress and brain activation in beta and gamma bands, which correlates with the results of the self-reported Perceived Stress Scale questionnaire.

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Eye Tracking-Based Stress Classification of Athletes in Virtual Reality

Cited by 13 publications

References 42 publications

Virtual reality for assessing stereopsis performance and eye characteristics in Post-COVID

Virtual reality for assessing stereopsis performance and eye characteristics in Post-COVID

Pupillometry as a new window to player fatigue? A glimpse inside the eyes of a Euro Cup Women’s Basketball team

Assessing Electroencephalography as a Stress Indicator: A VR High-Altitude Scenario Monitored through EEG and ECG

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