“…As a N-type semiconductor, titanium dioxide (TiO 2 ) has garnered significant attention due to its low cost, easy commercial availability, nontoxicity, high thermal and photochemical stability, and unique optical properties [ 18 , 19 ]. TiO 2 exists in various nanoscale forms, including nanospheres [ 20 ], nanowires [ 21 , 22 ], nanotubes [ 23 ], nanofibers [ 24 ], and has found wide-ranging applications in pollutant degradation [ 25 , 26 ], hydrogen production [ 27 , 28 ], and carbon dioxide reduction [ 29 ], etc. However, the large band gap width of TiO 2 (3.0–3.2 eV) restricts its light absorption to the UV region and limits its use in visible light irradiation [ 13 , 30 ].…”