“…The transducer is the critical element for determining the sensitivity, sensing range, and detection limit of the biosensors. In the past, several transducers for label-free immunosensing were developed, including quartz crystal microbalances (QCMs) [ 1 , 2 , 3 ], amperometric transducers [ 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 ], cantilever beams [ 8 , 9 , 10 ], electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) biosensors [ 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 ], preconcentrated immunosensing [ 15 , 16 , 17 ], surface plasmon resonance (SPR) [ 18 , 19 , 20 ], and nanobead Brownian motion [ 21 , 22 , 23 ]. Transducer fabrication of most current technologies is expensive, and they are not easy to mass-produce for rapid screening.…”