Factors Associated With Experiences of Fear, Anxiety, Depression, and Changes in Sleep Pattern During the COVID-19 Pandemic Among Adults in Nigeria: A Cross-Sectional Study

Abstract

BackgroundMultiple facets of the pandemic can be a source of fear, depression, anxiety and can cause changes in sleep patterns. The aim of this study was to identify health profiles and the COVID-19 pandemic related factors associated with fear, depression, anxiety and changes in sleep pattern in adults in Nigeria.MethodsThe data for this analysis was extracted from a cross-sectional online survey that collected information about mental health and well-ness from a convenience sample of adults 18 years and above resident in Nigeria from July to December 2020. Study participants were asked to complete an anonymous, closed-ended online questionnaire that solicited information on sociodemographic profile, health profiles (high, moderate and low COVID-19 infection risk profile) including HIV status, COVID-19 status, and self-reported experiences of fear, anxiety, depression and changes in sleep patterns.ResultsIn total, 4,439 participants with mean age of 38.3 (±11.6) years responded to the survey. Factors associated with higher odds of having COVID-19 related fear were health risk (p < 0.05); living with HIV (AOR: 3.88; 95% CI: 3.22–4.69); having COVID-19 symptoms but not tested (AOR: 1.61; 95% CI: 1.30–1.99); having a friend who tested positive to COVID-19 (AOR: 1.28; 95% CI: 1.07–1.53) and knowing someone who died from COVID-19 (AOR: 1.43; 95% CI: 1.24–1.65). The odds of feeling anxious was significantly higher for those with moderate or low health risk profile (p < 0.05); living with HIV (AOR: 1.64; 95% CI: 1.32–2.04); had a friend who tested positive for COVID-19 (AOR: 1.35; 95% CI: 1.08–1.68) or knew someone who died from COVID-19 (AOR: 1.53; 95% CI: 1.28–1.84). The odds of feeling depressed was significantly higher for those with health risk profile (p < 0.05); living with HIV (AOR: 2.49; 95% CI: 1.89–3.28); and respondents who had COVID-19 symptoms but had not taken a test (AOR: 1.41; 95% CI: 1.02–1.94). Factors associated with higher odds of having sleep pattern changes were having moderate and low health risk profiles (p < 0.05).ConclusionThe study findings suggest that the pandemic may cause fear, anxiety, depression and changes in sleep patterns differently for people with different health profile, HIV status and COVID-19 status.

Manifestation of Generalized Anxiety Disorder and Its Association With Somatic Symptoms Among Occupational and Physical Therapists During the COVID-19 Pandemic

“…Moreover, the respondents mainly experienced anxiety symptoms such as worrying too much, feeling anxious, annoyance and irritation, and feeling afraid due to the possibility of catching the coronavirus from patients attending rehabilitation services. Our findings paralleled the trends in other recent studies of the general population and healthcare professionals the Arab countries and around the world who reported having moderate to severe anxiety during the COVID-19 pandemic ( 10 , 20 – 23 , 29 – 31 , 34 , 45 ). Our results showed that neither the number of years of experience nor ages of the healthcare professionals had any influence on anxiety levels.…”

“…Mallorquí-Bagué et als' review ( 8 ) highlights the link between anxiety and somatic symptoms. GAD is generally associated with developing somatic symptoms including headache, irritability, impaired concentration, sleep disturbance, fatigue, muscle and joint pain, and dizziness ( 8 , 10 – 13 ). COVID-19 research indicates that moderate to severe levels of anxiety due to the pandemic is associated with somatic symptoms such gastrointestinal ailments, fatigue, and difficulty sleeping ( 10 , 14 , 15 ).…”

“…GAD is generally associated with developing somatic symptoms including headache, irritability, impaired concentration, sleep disturbance, fatigue, muscle and joint pain, and dizziness ( 8 , 10 – 13 ). COVID-19 research indicates that moderate to severe levels of anxiety due to the pandemic is associated with somatic symptoms such gastrointestinal ailments, fatigue, and difficulty sleeping ( 10 , 14 , 15 ). Furthermore, when healthcare professionals interact with patients with or without COVID-19, they experience increased levels of anxiety and somatic symptoms ( 16 – 19 ).…”

Rasch Modeling and Multilevel Confirmatory Factor Analysis for the Usability of the Impact of Event Scale-Revised (IES-R) during the COVID-19 Pandemic

“…The rapid and extensive spread of the COVID-19 pandemic worldwide, besides the unprecedented changes in daily life, has left people alarmed and frightened [ 15 , 20 , 30 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 ]. Historically, there have been multiple outbreaks over the past years, such as the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) epidemic, when moderate to severe post-traumatic stress symptoms were reported in the highly affected areas [ 39 ].…”

A cross-sectional study on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on psychological outcomes: Multiple indicators and multiple causes modeling

“…The COVID-19 pandemic provoked psychological distress among the general population [12][13][14][15][16][17][18]. It has been reported that 71% out of 4615 participants experienced psychological distress [19].…”