Factors Contributing to Urban Malaria Transmission in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Systematic Review

Abstract

Sub-Saharan Africa suffers by far the greatest malaria burden worldwide and is currently undergoing a profound demographic change, with a growing proportion of its population moving to urban areas. Urbanisation is generally expected to reduce malaria transmission; however the disease still persists in African cities, in some cases at higher levels than in nearby rural areas. Objective. This paper aims to collate and analyse risk factors for urban malaria transmission throughout sub-Saharan Africa and to discuss their implications for control. Methods. A systematic search on malaria and urbanisation was carried out focusing on sub-Saharan Africa. Particular interest was taken in vector breeding sites in urban and periurban areas. Results. A variety of urban vector breeding sites were catalogued, the majority of which were artificial, including urban agriculture, tyre tracks, and ditches. Natural breeding sites varied according to location. Low socioeconomic status was a significant risk factor for malaria, often present in peri-urban areas. A worrying trend was seen in the adaptation of malaria vector species to the urban environment. Urban malaria is highly focused and control programs should reflect this. Conclusion. As urbanisation continues and vector species adapt, continued monitoring and control of urban malaria in sub-Saharan Africa is essential.

Potential of household environmental resources and practices in eliminating residual malaria transmission: a case study of Tanzania, Burundi, Malawi and Liberia

“…For households which used water from unprotected wells, malaria risk increased between 22%-56%, though this increase was only significant in Tanzania. This increase is due to the fact that wells serve as meeting places for humans and mosquitoes 24 , provide oviposition sites 16 and shorten the gonotrophic cycle 3 especially when located near human habitations. Interestingly, the models predicted that boreholes significantly increased malaria risk between 19%-75%.…”

“…Residual transmission is exacerbated by human movements through exportation and importation of malaria parasites among regions 13 . It is also caused by climate change which enhances mosquito breeding and pathogen development 14,15 and more importantly, the proximity of natural or artificial mosquito breeding sites to human settlements 16 .…”

Pesticidal Paints: An Integral Approach to Colour your Imagination

“…It is argued that PPs could obtain universal availability relatively quickly, as the PP technology is easily adapted to the existing manufacturing, distribution, and sales networks for conventional paint. 7 This critical incentive for commercial development, production, and marketing of PPs has already garnered the attention of multinational corporations, such as paint company Akzo Nobel and insecticide producer Bayer. In 2013, Akzo Nobel launched a PP production facility in West Africa and initiated development activities in India.…”

“…It is argued that PPs could obtain universal availability relatively quickly, as the PP technology is easily adapted to the existing manufacturing, distribution, and sales networks for conventional paint. 7 This critical incentive for commercial development, production, and marketing of …”

Housing Surroundings and Self-reported Cases of Malaria in two Communities in Central Region of Ghana

“…The incidence of Plasmodium falciparum seems to be linked to environmental factors (4) . Sites for mosquitoes (the vectors for malaria parasites) to breed include ditches, vegetation, and rainfall (5,6) which abounds in Ghana. According to Owusu Sekeyere, Attakora-Amaniampong and Aboagye (2016) (7) mosquitoes were found more frequently in areas where there were choked drains and where waste was rampantly damped.…”