Family income and early achievement across the urban–rural continuum.

Abstract

Rural and suburban children account for the majority of poor children in the United States. Yet, most research examining poverty's associations with child development is focused on urban samples. Using nationally representative data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort (N ≈ 6,600), this study examines whether the form and magnitude of income's relationship with early achievement differ across the urban-rural continuum. Results suggest that there are urbanicity-related differences in the functional form of the association between income and early achievement, with nonlinear associations in urban and suburban areas and a linear relationship in rural areas. The magnitude of the association between income and early reading and math skills also differs across the urban-rural continuum, such that income increases are related to the greatest improvements in early academic skills in large urban areas and only slight improvements in rural areas.

Incinerator Pollution and Child Development in the Taiwan Birth Cohort Study

“…In China, urban-rural differences have been found in the growth of breastfed babies, with those living in cities showing significantly greater weight, length and head circumference than those in rural areas [31]; urban and urbanized children have also been found to be more socially adjusted in school [32]. In the United States, increases in income were associated with great improvements in early academic skills in urban areas, but only slight improvements in rural areas [33]. As in previous studies, socioeconomic condition has been found to be an important confounding factor in child development: the level of education of the parents has been associated with the developmental condition of the children [34,35].…”

The long-term effectiveness of the Family Check-Up on school-age conduct problems: Moderation by neighborhood deprivation

“…Recent conceptualizations of poverty suggest that the precise types of community-level, environmental stressors for those living in poverty vary by level of urbanicity, with most research in this area conducted on children from large urban communities (Miller, Votruba-Drzal, & Setodji, 2013; Shaw, 2013). Urban, suburban, and rural areas differ in terms of their population density, resources, availability of transportation, and social and community capital.…”

Future Directions for Research on the Development and Prevention of Early Conduct Problems

“…Relatedly, the precise types of community-level, environmental stressors for those living in poverty vary by level of urbanicity, with most research in this area conducted on children from large urban communities (Miller, Votruba-Drzal, & Setodji, in press). Urban, suburban, and rural areas differ in terms of their population density, resources, availability of transportation, and social and community capital.…”

“…Urban, suburban, and rural areas differ in terms of their population density, resources, availability of transportation, and social and community capital. Rural communities are often characterized by lack of access to public transportation, health care, libraries, child care, and other social services (Vernon-Feagans, Gallagher, & Kainz, 2008), inner-city neighborhoods often include little green spaces, high rates of crime and poverty concentration, overcrowding, and noise and air pollution (Evans, 2006), while low-income families living in suburban communities report feeling isolated from social service providers and social support (Miller et al, in press). It remains to be seen how these differences in urbanicity relate to the development and persistence of CP.…”