Family Socioeconomic Status and Exposure to Childhood Trauma: Racial Differences

Abstract

Background: Minorities’ diminished returns (MDRs) refer to weaker effects of socioeconomic status (SES) indicators such as parental educational attainment and family income in generating tangible childhood outcomes for racial and ethnic minorities compared to the majority group, a pattern prevalent in the US. Our existing knowledge is minimal, however, about diminished returns of family SES on reducing exposure to childhood trauma. Aim: To determine if there was a difference between non-Hispanic whites (NHW) and non-Hispanic blacks (NHB) in the effect of SES on exposure to childhood trauma among children ages 8–11 years old. Materials and methods: In this cross-sectional study, we analyzed data from 4696 NHW or NHB American 8–11-year-old children who were participants in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study. The independent variables were parental educational attainment and family income. The primary outcome was exposure to 1 or 2+ childhood traumas, measured by the Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia (K-SADS) semi-structured interview. Polynomial regression was used for data analysis. Results: Parental education and family income had statistically significant protective (negative) effects on childhood trauma, indicating children from high income and highly educated families were exposed to a lower level of childhood trauma. However, race/ethnicity showed statistically significant interactions with parental education and family income on exposure to childhood trauma, indicating weaker protective effects of parental education and family income on reducing exposure to trauma for NHB compared to NHW children. Race-specific models showed protective effects of parental education and family income on exposure to childhood trauma for NHW but not NHB children. Conclusion: The protective effects of parental education and family income against exposure to childhood trauma are systematically diminished for NHBs compared to NHWs. To minimize the racial/ethnic health gaps, diminished returns of parental education and family income should be addressed. There is a need for programs and interventions that equalize not only SES but also the marginal returns of SES for ethnic groups. Such efforts require addressing structural and societal barriers that hinder NHB families from translating their SES resources into tangible outcomes. There is a need for studies that can minimize MDRs for NHB families, such that SES can similarly secure tangible outcomes in the presence of SES resources.

Parental Education, Household Income, and Cortical Surface Area among 9–10 Years Old Children: Minorities’ Diminished Returns

“…In a recent study using Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) data, the SES effect on amygdala size was less pronounced in Black (socially disadvantaged) than White (socially privileged) children [ 37 ]. This observation is in line with our studies showing weaker effects of parental education and household income on trauma [ 38 ], ADHD [ 39 ], suicide [ 40 ], depression [ 41 ], anxiety [ 42 ], aggression [ 43 ], tobacco use [ 43 , 44 ], impulsivity [ 45 ], school bonding [ 46 ], school performance [ 47 ], and inhibitory control [ 48 ] for Black than White children. Similar findings are shown in the ABCD [ 40 , 48 ], Add Health [ 49 ], Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (FFCWS) [ 39 , 45 , 46 , 50 , 51 ], Monitoring the Future (MTF) [ 47 ], National Survey of American Life (NSAL) [ 41 ], Flint Adolescents Study (FAS) [ 42 ], Early Childhood Longitudinal (ECL) study [ 52 ], and the Family and Community Health Study (FACHS) [ 53 , 54 ], all suggesting that parental education and household income provide diminished protection for Black than White families.…”

“…Black children with highly educated parents are sent to worse schools [ 52 ], live in more dangerous environments [ 56 ], and have high-risk peers and relatives [ 57 ]. In addition, high SES Black children still experience high levels of chronic stress and trauma [ 38 ], which is toxic to brain development [ 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 ]. Finally, for Black families, SES increases rather than decreases exposure and vulnerability to discrimination.…”

African Americans’ Diminished Returns of Parental Education on Adolescents’ Depression and Suicide in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study

“…The study presented here failed to explore the contextual and societal factors and processes that may cause intergenerational MDRs for racial and ethnic minority families. MDRs have been in part attributed to institutional, structural, and multilevel racism [6,86]. African American individuals are likely to stay in poor neighborhoods despite high SES.…”

Reward Responsiveness in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study: African Americans’ Diminished Returns of Parental Education

“…Highly educated African Americans are more likely to stay poor than non-Hispanic Whites [77,118]. Similarly, African American families from high SES backgrounds are more likely to remain at risk of negative environmental exposures than non-Hispanic Whites with similar SES [104,105,107,[119][120][121][122][123]. Similarly, high SES African American adolescents spend time with peers with higher risk and behavioral problems than non-Hispanic Whites with the same SES [63,98].…”