Fate of Foodborne Viruses in the “Farm to Fork” Chain of Fresh Produce

Abstract

Norovirus (NoV) and hepatitis A virus (HAV) are the most important foodborne viruses. Fresh produce has been identified as an important vehicle for their transmission. In order to supply a basis to identify possible prevention and control strategies, this review intends to demonstrate the fate of foodborne viruses in the farm to fork chain of fresh produce, which include the introduction routes (contamination sources), the viral survival abilities at different stages, and the reactions of foodborne viruses towards the treatments used in food processing of fresh produce. In general, the preharvest contamination comes mainly from soli fertilizer or irrigation water, while the harvest and postharvest contaminations come mainly from food handlers, which can be both symptomatic and asymptomatic. Foodborne viruses show high stabilities in all the stages of fresh produce production and processing. Low-temperature storage and other currently used preservation techniques, as well as washing by water have shown limited added value for reducing the virus load on fresh produce. Chemical sanitizers, although with limitations, are strongly recommended to be applied in the wash water in order to minimize cross-contamination. Alternatively, radiation strategies have shown promising inactivating effects on foodborne viruses. For high-pressure processing and thermal treatment, efforts have to be made on setting up treatment parameters to induce sufficient viral inactivation within a food matrix and to protect the sensory and nutritional qualities of fresh produce to the largest extent.

Occurrence of enteric viruses in reclaimed and surface irrigation water: relationship with microbiological and physicochemical indicators

“…Foodborne outbreaks caused by enteric viruses linked to irrigation of fresh produce with sewage have been reported (Li et al . ). Noroviruses are frequently present in influent and effluent wastewater (Hewitt et al .…”

“…Fresh produce is an important vector for the transmission of foodborne viruses like Norovirus (NoV) and Hepatitis A virus (HAV) to the human host (Li et al 2015). Irrigation water is one of the vehicles identified for the contamination of produce during primary production with pathogenic micro-organisms including viruses (Du Plessis et al 2015).…”

“…Wastewater is used, mainly in arid and semi-arid regions of the world, to increase water resources available for irrigation (Pachepsky et al 2011). Foodborne outbreaks caused by enteric viruses linked to irrigation of fresh produce with sewage have been reported (Li et al 2015). Noroviruses are frequently present in influent and effluent wastewater (Hewitt et al 2011).…”

Inactivation of Human Norovirus Genogroups I and II and Surrogates by Free Chlorine in Postharvest Leafy Green Wash Water

“…Leafy greens can be exposed to hNoVs in the field through contaminated seeds, soil, or irrigation water and during harvest through field workers' hands (5). After harvest, the leafy greens are then cooled at the farm or after entering the postharvest processing facility.…”

Inactivation of Foodborne Pathogens and Their Surrogates on Fresh and Frozen Strawberries Using Gaseous Ozone

“…During the fruit season, berries are manually harvested and consumed as fresh, but also used as dried or frozen ingredients added to many foods. With a minimal use of physical interventions to control the foodborne pathogens, microbial contamination is considered to be the most important food safety issue in berry products (Van Boxstael et al, 2013;Bouwknegt et al, 2015;Li et al, 2015;Jacxsens et al, 2017). In the past decade, the consumption of frozen berries in Europe showed a steep increase (Tavoschi et al, 2015), meanwhile numbers of foodborne outbreaks have been reported.…”