Feeding Patterns of Three Widespread Carnivores—The Wolf, Snow Leopard, and Red Fox—in the Trans-Himalayan Landscape of India

Abstract

The Trans-Himalayan landscape is an extreme cold desert with limited diversity and a low density of wild prey. The landscape has three widespread carnivores—the wolf Canis lupus chanco, snow leopard Panthera uncia, and red fox Vulpes vulpes—competing for similar prey. We studied predation patterns, dietary competition, and niche segregation of three sympatric carnivores in the Indian Trans-Himalayas. The Himalayan or wooly wolf is one of the oldest lineages and has adapted to extreme cold. We further studied the prey selection of the wolf in the high-altitude environment. We collected 1,600 carnivore scats (wolf = 542, snow leopard = 31, and red fox = 1,027), and additional data on 573 snow leopard scats from literature was used in the analyses. We found that livestock was a major contributor to the wolf (56.46%) and snow leopard diet (30.01%). The wolf consumed blue sheep (8.26%) and ibex (3.13%), whereas the snow leopard subsisted on blue sheep (30.79%) and ibex (17.15%), relatively more frequently. The red fox preyed upon small species like pika and marmots (18.85 %); however, livestock carrions (16.49%), fruits and seeds (15.05%), and human-derived material (11.89%) were also consumed frequently. The dietary niche of three carnivore species highly overlapped (Pianka's index = 0.503, simulated mean = 0.419, p = 0.15) due to livestock. The carnivores segregated their diet in prey items originating from the wild. We tested a relationship between carnivore diet variations and prey/predator functional traits using RLQ ordination. Predator morphology traits like body size, weight, and habitat preference significantly affected the prey selection (p < 0.05). The wolf and snow leopard avoided the competition through habitat selection, while the red fox coexisted by exploiting a broader niche. The wolf showed site-specific variation in prey preferences albeit no prey selection at the landscape level (G2 = 6.79, df = 12, p = 0.87). The wolf preferred wild prey over domestic species at the wild prey rich site. The carnivores in this pastoralist landscape have adapted to exploit livestock resources despite facing persecution. Therefore, managing livestock and simultaneously restoring wild prey is crucial for the conservation of the carnivore guild in the Trans-Himalayan ecosystem.

Different coexistence patterns between apex carnivores and mesocarnivores based on temporal, spatial, and dietary niche partitioning analysis in Qilian Mountain National Park, China

“…As canid generalist-opportunist species, the wolf and red fox consumed similar prey, albeit the red fox may have obtained livestock and ungulate species via scavenging or by preying on very young individuals (Hacker et al, 2022). Recent research has found that the red fox may coexist with the wolf by exploiting a broader niche (Shrotriya et al, 2022). This was confirmed by occupancy model in our study, where significant differences in the relationship with NDVI between wolf and red fox were observed.…”

Trophic interaction and livestock dependence of snow leopard and sympatric carnivores in Tianshan, Northwest China.

“…al., 2012; Sunarto et al, 2015; Bu et al, 2016), as larger predators try to eliminate competition of small predators by predation or killing of individuals (Palomares & Caro 1999; Jose et al, 2000; Hass 2009). Our result agrees with the nding that prey diversity is one of the ways that red fox reduce the pressure of inter-speci c competition, allowing red fox to coexist with sympatric large predators by exploiting a broader trophic niche(Shrotriya et al, 2022).…”

“…As opportunistic, ambush predators, snow leopard are reported to typically prefer steep and rugged terrain (Jackson & Ahlborn 1989), while wolf are cursorial predators highly adapted to chase their prey over long distances (Husseman et al, 2003). It could be hypothesized that difference in hunting strategies and trophic competotion avoidance might lead to different habitat selection, and subsequent spatial separation facilitate co-existence of the two apex predators (Shrotriya et al, 2022).…”

Understanding carnivore interactions in a cold arid trans‐Himalayan landscape: What drives co‐existence patterns within predator guild along varying resource gradients?

“…Land use changes have resulted in the fragmentation of wildlife habitats around the world, forcing animals to coexist with humans (Inskip & Zimmermann, 2009 ). Spiti Valley, a cold arid trans‐Himalayan landscape characterized by extreme environment and low species diversity (Shrotriya et al, 2022 ), is one such region threatened by development and tourism boom (Peaty, 2009 ). Tourism, coupled with unmanaged garbage and improper disposal of livestock carcasses, not only facilitates the red fox but also allows free‐roaming dogs, an introduced mesopredator, to thrive, possibly more than the native red fox (Ghoshal et al, 2016 ; Hughes & Macdonald, 2013 ).…”