Feeding Practices and Parenting: A Pathway to Child Health and Family Happiness

Abstract

Feeding and parenting are inextricably linked. The complex bidirectional interactions between parent feeding practices and child eating behaviour shape the early feeding environment which in turn interacts with genetic predispositions to lay the foundation for life-long eating habits and health outcomes. Parent feeding and child (and parent) eating are central to the fabric of family life and are strongly rooted in culture and tradition. Yet, many parents experience stress and anxiety related to this ubiquitous parenting task and perceive their child as a “fussy eater” or a “difficult feeder.” Parents commonly misinterpret heritable and developmentally “normal” child eating behaviour, such as food refusal, as cause for concern. In an effort to get their child to “eat well” they respond with coercive feeding practices, such as pressure, reward and restriction. Emotional feeding that uses food to comfort, distract, calm or shape behaviour is also common. Although well intentioned, these non-responsive, parent- rather than child-centred feeding practices are ineffective, even counterproductive. They teach children to eat for reasons unrelated to appetite and, hence, more than they need and fail to support development of healthy food preferences and appetite regulation. Early feeding interventions are needed that assist parents to understand normal child eating behaviour and promote responsive feeding practices and effective food parenting. The aim of this chapter is to review (1) “normal” eating behaviour of young children, (2) the range of feeding practices and strategies that parents use to respond to and try to shape these behaviours, (3) evidence for approaches to feeding young children that have potential to reduce conflict related to child feeding and promote life-long healthy eating patterns that are a key determinant of long-term health and well-being and (4) to provide an overview of an early feeding intervention, NOURISH, which demonstrated a positive impact on maternal feeding practices and potentially reduced parent anxiety and stress related to feeding.

The Use of Added Salt and Sugar in the Diet of Polish and Austrian Toddlers. Associated Factors and Dietary Patterns, Feeding and Maternal Practices

“…Moreover, this time is considered a sensitive period for establishing healthy dietary habits [ 2 ]. Breastfeeding, complementary feeding, parental feeding practices, but also social and family environment, play a crucial role in the development of children’s food preferences, attitudes, and dietary patterns [ 2 , 3 , 4 ]. However, children are evolutionarily predisposed to prefer high-energy, sweet and salty foods [ 2 , 5 ], as well as to reject bitter or new food items which may be extremely challenging for parents.…”

“…However, children are evolutionarily predisposed to prefer high-energy, sweet and salty foods [ 2 , 5 ], as well as to reject bitter or new food items which may be extremely challenging for parents. Additionally, it was reported that repeated exposure to healthy foods (e.g., vegetables) along with limited access to unhealthy ones is a powerful factor that contributes to the development of healthier food preferences and dietary habits that may provide long term health outcomes [ 2 , 3 , 4 ]. Nonetheless, it emphasizes the need to offer children foods that are nutrient-dense and appropriate for them [ 2 , 4 , 6 ].…”

Association between parental feeding practices and shared family meals. The Food4toddlers study

“…A healthy diet during infancy and toddlerhood is essential for healthy growth and development and fundamental for lifelong health (1,2). Parents are gatekeepers of their child's diet, both in relation to what is served, in what settings it is served and how it is served (3,4). Regarding what is served, a diet high in fruits and vegetables is highly recommended together with whole grains, milk and fish (5), however, national data show that it is challenging for parents to include vegetables and fish in their children's diet (6).…”

The Child Feeding Guide: A digital health intervention for reducing controlling child feeding practices and maternal anxiety over time

“…2015; Walton et al . 2017; Daniels 2019). Parental concern about children’s fussy eating has recently been shown to be related to greater use of more controlling feeding practices (Harris et al .…”

“…Coulthard & Harris 2003; Norman et al . 2015; Daniels 2019). Maternal anxiety may result from concerns around children’s diet and fussy eating but may also exacerbate the use of controlling and emotional feeding practices which are counterproductive ( e.g .…”