“…Both sexes present white patches on the wings and on the forehead, although female forehead patches are almost nonexistent in northern populations (Morales et al , , Cantarero et al ). There is a large literature showing that these patches constitute sexual and social signals of differing importance according to the population being studied (Dale et al , Morales et al , Galván and Moreno , Lehtonen et al , Sirkiä and Laaksonen , Lobato et al , Moreno et al , , , Moreno et al Järvistö et al , Cantarero et al , , Sirkiä et al , Plaza et al , Teerikorpi et al ). Forehead patches are moulted together with body plumage in Africa, while wing patches are constituted by white patches on tertials, also moulted in Africa, and white bands on flight feathers, moulted in the breeding range during or soon after breeding (Lundberg and Alatalo ).…”