“…To address this, various multiscale modelling approaches such as Homogenization, Monte Carlo, Cellular Automata and Molecular dynamics [e.g. 20,21,22] have been proposed as methods to reproduce microstructure within a larger continuous element or Representative Volume Element (RVE); this introduces microstructure into a continuous FEM model. Nonetheless, there remain challenges due to high computational cost and mathematical complexity that hinder the application of these methods for different loading conditions in complex geometries, or more detailed 3D representation of the microstructure.…”