Field dependence–independence as visuospatial and executive functioning in working memory: implications for instructional systems design and research

Abstract

Field dependence-independence (FDI) has long been conceptualized and discussed as a cognitive style relevant to numerous educational approaches and outcomes. However, the FDI construct is most often measured as a cognitive ability, as opposed to a style, using instruments such as the Group-Embedded Figures test (GEFT) or the Hidden Figures Test (HFT). Specifically, FDI is typically measured as visuospatial ability and executive functioning in working memory. While measurement and use of FDI within psychological and educational research has often resulted in misleading or inconsistent discussion about cognitive styles, this review examines how the long history of FDI research continues to be relevant to contemporary instructional contexts. A broader recognition of FDI as ability is suggested in order to (a) better distinguish ability measurements from those of styles, (b) encourage a reinterpretation and awareness of theoretical connections among past studies that use instruments such as GEFT or HFT, and (c) highlight suggestions for future research and application, particularly with contemporary interactive multimedia learning tools.

Cognitive Style as Environmentally Sensitive Individual Differences in Cognition

“…Evans and Waring (2012) noted that at certain points in learners' transitions and in the completion of certain tasks, matching specific styles is important (Riding & Rayner, 1998)-a finding that has also been confirmed in the context of research on e-learning styles (Handal & Herrington, 2004;Rittschof, 2010). In summary, a general recommendation is that instructors should help students to develop appropriate cognitive styles in relation to the needs of the task or tasks and be mindful that students may vary in how at University of Texas at El Paso on January 3, 2015 psi.sagepub.com Downloaded from flexibly they can use different cognitive styles (Evans & Waring, 2012).…”

“…Bruce Lee's idea about having "no style" leads us to focus on helping students to be proficient in multiple styles and to choose the most appropriate style for a given situation. Shipman and Shipman (1985) were one of the first to highlight the importance of helping students to become sensitive and proficient in multiple alternative strategies, and there has been an increasing focus in educational research during the past decades on helping students to self-regulate their learning and flexibly switch between styles, according to situational requirements (e.g., Alferink & Farmer-Dougan, 2010;Barnett, 2011;Rittschof, 2010;Sharma & Kolb, 2011). Zhang (2013) has also noted that individuals can demonstrate both stability and flexibility in their intellectual styles.…”

The effect of levels of processing with navigation design types on recall and retention in e-learning environments

“…On the other hand, the target words could be seen on the screen and processed with a task only once during reading, unless the participants returned to the relevant page again. At this point a visuo-spatial memory (Baddeley and Hitch 1974) could be possible for participants' cognitive processes, due to repeated demonstrations of memory traces, implicit learning and episodic memory (Chun and Jiang 1998;Rittschof 2010). Memory retrieves the information with episodic and location features, which were encoded by visuo-spatial processes.…”

Applying styles research to educational practice

“…In addition, Blazhenkova, Becker, and Kozhevnikov in discussion of their measure of spatial visual, object visual, and verbal styles (this issue) highlight the greater flexibility of some styles compared to others. Furthermore, for certain activities and for certain styles, the nature of instruction may be extremely important (Riding, 1991), for example, in relation to the interactions between cognitive styles (specifically field dependence/independence) and e-learning (Handal & Herrington, 2004;Rittschof, 2010).…”

“…Thus we are arguing the need for style to be seen as the key to opening up aspects of the self as a learner rather than being used as a reductionist labelling tool. Rittschof (2010) adding to this debate asks all educators to seriously question whether they need to be using style measures at all with their students. In summary, Evans and Waring (in press) point to the importance of understanding the implications of styles research in the design of learning environments and highlight significant developments in educational practice in this respect.…”