Field-portable-XRF reveals the ubiquity of antimony in plastic consumer products

Abstract

Very little systematic information exists on the occurrence and concentrations of antimony (Sb) in consumer products. In this study, a Niton XL3t field-portable-X-ray fluorescence (FP-XRF) spectrometer was deployed in situ and in the laboratory to provide quantitative information on Sb dissipated in plastic items and fixtures (including rubber, textile and foamed materials) from the domestic, school, vehicular and office settings. The metalloid was detected in 18% of over 800 measurements performed, with concentrations ranging from about 60 to 60,000μgg. The highest concentrations were encountered in white, electronic casings and in association with similar concentrations of Br, consistent with the use of antimony oxides (e.g. SbO) as synergistic flame retardants. Concentrations above 1000μgg, and with or without Br, were also encountered in paints, piping and hosing, adhesives, whiteboards, Christmas decorations, Lego blocks, document carriers, garden furniture, upholstered products and interior panels of private motor vehicles. Lower concentrations of Sb were encountered in a wide variety of items but its presence (without Br) in food tray packaging, single-use drinks bottles, straws and small toys were of greatest concern from a human health perspective. While the latter observations are consistent with the use of antimony compounds as catalysts in the production of polyethylene terephthalate, co-association of Sb and Br in many products not requiring flame retardancy suggests that electronic casings are widely recycled. Further research is required into the mobility of Sb when dissipated in new, recycled and aged polymeric materials.

Bromine in plastic consumer products – Evidence for the widespread recycling of electronic waste

“…In a recent article, we demonstrated the ubiquity of Sb amongst polymeric consumer products by means of a portable Niton x-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometer configured in a low density mode and with thickness correction (Turner and Filella, 2017). The metalloid was often encountered with similar or greater concentrations of Br in both electrical-electronic goods or components and non-electronic products, indicative of the presence of BFRs in association with oxides of Sb as flame retardant synergists.…”

Black plastics: Linear and circular economies, hazardous additives and marine pollution

“…In the present study, concentrations of the elements listed above, plus Cl as a measure of chlorination and an indicator of polyvinyl chloride (PVC; operationally defined as [Cl] > 15% for the purposes of the XRF calibration), were determined in plastics using a Niton XL3t 950 GOLDD+ XRF according to protocols described in detail elsewhere (Turner and Solman, 2016) and as summarised below. Data for old and new black plastics, sourced from various households, offices, nurseries, schools, stores and fast-food establishments, have been compiled both from results of previous research into consumer plastics in general (Turner and Filella, 2017a;2017b) and from new measurements where black products have been specifically targeted. Data for marine plastic litter that is coloured black have been distilled from published and unpublished results of several beach litter surveys undertaken around the English Channel and Atlantic coasts of south west England (Turner, 2016;Massos and Turner, 2017).…”

Detecting trends in freshwater trace element concentrations: methodological issues and data treatment

“…The WWTP contribution is a bit higher for Sb (16%) and huge for Gd (83%). In the case of Gd, it is widely accepted that this is due to its medical use (Kuroda et al 2016) and, for Sb, it is probably the result of its widespread use and dissipation in the final products (Turner & Filella 2017). Therefore, the only case where the observed temporal trend can be unequivocally attributed to the input from WWTP is Gd.…”