First detection of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins in Icelandic mussels (Mytilus edulis): Links to causative phytoplankton species

Abstract

17Paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins were detected in blue mussels (Mytilus 18 edulis) from two harvesting areas, Eyjafjordur on the north coast and Breidafjordur on 19 the west coast of Iceland in 2009. During a bloom of Alexandrium spp. at both 20 locations in June of that year, blue mussels were found to be contaminated with 21 paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs), leading to extensive closures of these harvesting 22 sites. 23Phytoplankton data taken during this time showed the presence of large numbers of A. 24 tamarense, with smaller numbers of A. ostenfeldii also being detected. Mussel 25 2 samples were analysed by mouse bioassay (MBA) and liquid chromatography with 26 fluorescence detection (LC-FLD). Toxicity over 10 times the European Union (EU) 27 regulatory limit was observed in samples from Eyjafjordur while levels over 4 times 28 this limit were detected in samples from Breidafjordur. The toxin profile determined 29 by LC-FLD was found to be composed primarily of the carbamate toxins 30 gonyautoxin-2,3 (GTX-2,3). Saxitoxin (STX) was also detected in all samples 31 analysed and was the second most abundant toxin present. Gonyautoxin-1,4 (GTX-32 1,4) was detected at lower concentrations in half the samples analysed from both 33 locations. Comparison is made between predicted toxin profiles from these algal 34 species and the toxin profiles determined through LC-FLD analysis. 35These results represent the first identification and PST profile determination in 36 shellfish harvested from Icelandic waters. 37 38

Distribution of Alexandrium fundyense (Dinophyceae) cysts in Greenland and Iceland, with an emphasis on viability and growth in the Arctic

“…In contrast, water column temperatures measured in Iceland were much higher, ranging from 2 to 12 °C in Arnarfjörđur and 6 to 15 °C in Breiđafjörđur; with the exception of the deepest areas of Arnarfjörđur (>60 m), water temperatures were generally >8 °C. Notably, Burrell et al (2013) observed high cell concentrations (>10,000 cells L −1 ) of Alexandrium spp., which they tentatively designated as A. tamarense along with small numbers of A. ostenfeldii , in Breiđafjörđur and in Eyjafjordur (northern Iceland) in 2009. Low to moderate Alexandrium spp.…”

“…PSP toxins in blue mussels were recently reported for the first time from Iceland, along with record high numbers of toxic Alexandrium spp. (>16,000 cells L −1 ) (Burrell et al 2013). Additionally, PSP toxins were detected in scallops at levels exceeding regulatory limits for the first time in western Greenland (Baggesen et al 2012), and A. fundyense was isolated and identified from nearby waters.…”

Bioactive compounds of marine dinoflagellate isolates from western Greenland and their phylogenetic association within the genus Alexandrium

“…Whether or not this ribotype/species dominates throughout the Arctic remains an open question, largely due to the lack of molecular evidence. For example, the toxigenic natural populations of the Alexandrium tamarense complex found in Icelandic fjords were assigned to A. tamarense based upon microscopic observation of cells by the Utermö hl method, but no molecular data on ribotyping were provided (Burrell et al, 2013). Confirmation of the presence or absence of alternative ribotypes of this species complex in the Arctic might be more comprehensively investigated by additional screenings of planktonic cells by various molecular probe-based methods, such as in situ hybridization (e.g.…”

“…This general pattern is also consistent within A. tamarense Group I ribotype strains from the western Arctic (Chukchi Sea), where the N-sulfocarbamoyl toxin C2 dominated, followed by STX and GTX2/ 3, with lesser amounts of GTX1/4 and NEO in decreasing relative molar ratios (Gu et al, 2013b). In contrast, natural populations of the A. tamarense group in Icelandic fjords yielded dominance by the carbamoyl toxins, with GTX2/3 > STX > GTX1/4 in decreasing order of relative abundance, and the absence of N-sulfocarbamoyl toxins and NEO (Burrell et al, 2013). Populations from highly diverse locations along the eastern Russian coast, including Arcticadjacent waters of the Bering Sea, were highly variable in toxin profile, but consistently contained significant (often dominant) proportions of N-sulfocarbamoyl toxins, particularly C2 or B1 (=GTX5) (Orlova et al, 2007).…”

“…The genus Alexandrium is considered to be native to the Norwegian Sea, where it is occasionally associated with paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP), along the Norwegian coast as far north as 718 N (Tangen and Dahl, 1993). In 2013, blooms of Alexandrium and a first identification of PSP toxins in blue mussels were reported from Icelandic waters (Burrell et al, 2013). Other northern records of Alexandrium are available from almost all arctic and subarctic regions, including the Gulf of Alaska (Taylor, 1984;Horner et al, 1997), the Greenland Sea northwest of Spitzbergen (Heimdal, 1983), the Northwestern Passage at Igloolik (Bursa, 1961), the Barents and White Sea (Ratkova and Wassmann, 2005), the Beaufort Sea (Niemi et al, 2011), the Bering Sea (Konovalova, 1993;Selina et al, 2006;Orlova et al, 2007), and the Chukchi Sea (Gu et al, 2013b;Natsuike et al, 2013).…”