contributed equally to this work.
AbstractBatteries that shuttle multi-valent ions such as Mg 2+ and Ca 2+ ions are promising candidates for achieving higher energy density than available with current Li-ion technology. Finding electrode materials that reversibly store and release these multi-valent cations is considered a major challenge for enabling such multi-valent battery technology. In this paper, we use recent advances in high-throughput firstprinciples calculations to systematically evaluate the performance of compounds with the spinel structure as multivalent intercalation cathode materials, spanning a matrix of five different intercalating ions and seven transition metal redox active cation. We estimate the insertion voltage, capacity, thermodynamic stability of charged and discharged states, as well as the intercalating ion mobility and use these properties to evaluate promising directions. Our calculations indicate that the Mn2O4 spinel phase based on Mg and Ca are feasible cathode materials. In general, we find that multivalent cathodes exhibit lower voltages compared to Li cathodes; 2 the voltages of Ca spinels are ~ 0.2V higher than those of Mg compounds (versus their corresponding metals), and the voltages of Mg compounds are ~1.4 V higher than Zn compounds; consequently, Ca and Mg spinels exhibit the highest energy densities amongst all the multivalent cation species. The activation barrier for the Al 3+ ion migration in the Mn2O4 spinel is very high (~1400 meV for Al 3+ in the dilute limit); thus, the use of an Al based Mn spinel intercalation cathode is unlikely.Amongst the choice of transition metals, Mn-based spinel structures rank highest when balancing all the considered properties.
Broader ContextThe high price and limited volumetric capacity of the lithium ion battery (LIB) challenges its application in electric vehicles and portable electronics. Multivalent batteries, such as those utilizing Mg 2+ or Ca 2+ as the working ions, are promising candidates for beyond LIB technology due to the increase in volumetric capacity and reduced cost. In the present work, we use first-principles calculations to systematically evaluate the theoretical performance of the spinel structure host with the general formula AB2O4 across a matrix of chemical compositions spanning A={Al, Y, Mg, Ca, Zn} and B={Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni} for multivalent battery applications. The evaluation incorporates screening on voltage, capacity, thermodynamic structural and thermal stability as well as ion mobility and discusses the results in the context of available host structure sites, preference of the intercalating cation, and the oxidation state of the redox-active cation. Overall, the Mn2O4 spinel phases paired with Mg 2+ or Ca 2+ emerge as the most promising multivalent cathode materials. As the first comprehensive screening of multivalent intercalation compounds across size, valence, and redox-states of the involved cations, our work is intended to