First report of Angiostrongylus vasorum and Hepatozoon from a red fox (Vulpes vulpes) from West Virginia, USA

Epidemiological survey of Angiostrongylus vasorum in dogs and slugs around a new endemic focus in Scotland

“…In recent years, the parasite appears to have spread beyond previously local endemic foci to infect dogs and foxes in new countries and regions in Europe (Helm and others 2010, Traversa and others 2010, Guardone and others 2013, Schnyder and others 2013) and North America (Conboy 2011, Kistler and others 2014), with further spread to climatically suitable regions thought likely in future (Morgan and others 2009). In the UK, A vasorum was identified in dogs and then foxes in Cornwall (Jones and others 1980, Martin and Neal 1992, Simpson 1996) and later in south Wales (Trees 1987) and south-east England (Chapman and others 2004).…”

What is your diagnosis? Fine‐needle aspirate of a lung nodule and bronchoalveolar lavage from a dog

“…Angiostrongylus vasorum adults are located in pulmonary arteries and the right ventricle of the heart, producing eggs that hatch to L1 larvae, which penetrate alveoli, migrate up the oropharynx, are swallowed and excreted in the feces to be ingested by intermediate hosts (slugs or snails). The L3 larvae developing in intermediate hosts penetrate the gut wall when ingested by a dog, migrate to the abdominal lymph nodes, molt to L4 larvae, enter the portal circulation and migrate through the liver parenchyma to the right ventricle and pulmonary arteries, where they mature to adults …”

“…Although the fecal Baermann test is considered the gold standard for diagnosing angiostrongylosis and crenosomosis, false‐negative results can occur due to prepatent infections and intermittent fecal larval shedding. The IDEXX Angio Detect Test for in‐clinic detection of an antigen released by A vasorum adults in plasma or serum specimens has a relative sensitivity of 98.1% and a relative specificity of 99.4% compared to the Baermann technique.…”

“…The L3 larvae developing in intermediate hosts penetrate the gut wall when ingested by a dog, migrate to the abdominal lymph nodes, molt to L4 larvae, enter the portal circulation and migrate through the liver parenchyma to the right ventricle and pulmonary arteries, where they mature to adults. 2 Angiostrongylus vasorum L1 larvae are 310-400 lm long, have a cephalic button at the anterior end, and the tail terminates in a sinus wave-shaped kink with a dorsal spine, which may not always be visible in cytology. 2 In experimental infection, L1 larvae were detected in 100% of the BAL cytology specimens 60 days postinfection (dpi) 3 , followed by multinucleated giant cells at 120 dpi.…”

Canine angiostrongylosis: recent advances in diagnosis, prevention, and treatment

“…In particular, this is the first autochthonous record of A. vasorum infection in the US and from outside of Newfoundland, Canada. 31 Red foxes have the largest geographical distribution of any other carnivore in North America, 32 where suitable susceptible definitive and intermediate hosts are abundant throughout the majority of this territory. 30 Also, local climatic conditions guarantee a potential survival and spread of A. vasorum; thus, the likelihood that a spread of A. vasorum in mainland North America will become a reality in the near future is indeed high.…”