Flash-Based Security Primitives: Evolution, Challenges and Future Directions

Gordon, Holden; Edmonds, Jack; Ghandali, Soroor; Yan, Wei; Karimian, Nima; Tehranipoor, Fatemeh

doi:10.3390/cryptography5010007

Cited by 8 publications

(5 citation statements)

References 69 publications

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“…In our work, we focus on Flash-memory-based PUFs implemented on NAND Flash memories using programming disturbances (and, thus, we will proceed to examine in more detail only this type of Flash-memory-based PUF), as this method has been proven to be effective in order to construct Flash-memory-based PUFs in COTS devices, and as Flash-memory-based PUFs implemented on NAND Flash memories using reading disturbances have been shown to provide responses of lower entropy, as they do not create as many disturbances as Flash-memory-based PUFs implemented on NAND Flash memories using programming disturbances do, for the same period of time required in order to produce the relevant responses. In general, it has also been noted that NAND Flash memories are cheaper than NOR Flash memories, with NAND Flash memories being used for data storage, and NOR ones for code storage and execution [160].…”

Section: Flash-memory-based Pufsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Practical Lightweight Security: Physical Unclonable Functions and the Internet of Things

Anagnostopoulos¹

2022

Preprint

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In this work, we examine whether Physical Unclonable Functions (PUFs) can act as lightweight security mechanisms for practical applications in the context of the Internet of Things (IoT). In order to do so, we first discuss what PUFs are, and note that memory-based PUFs seem to fit the best to the framework of the IoT. Then, we consider a number of relevant memory-based PUF designs and their properties, and evaluate their ability to provide security in nominal and adverse conditions. Finally, we present and assess a number of practical PUF-based security protocols for IoT devices and networks, in order to confirm that memory-based PUFs can indeed constitute adequate security mechanisms for the IoT, in a practical and lightweight fashion.More specifically, we first consider what may constitute a PUF, and we redefine PUFs as inanimate physical objects whose characteristics can be exploited in order to obtain a behaviour similar to a highly distinguishable (i.e., “(quite) unique”) mathematical function. We note that PUFs share many characteristics with biometrics, with the main difference being that PUFs are based on the characteristics of inanimate objects, while biometrics are based on the characteristics of humans and other living creatures. We also note that it cannot really be proven that PUFs are unique per instance, but they should be considered to be so, insofar as (human) biometrics are also considered to be unique per instance.We, then, proceed to discuss the role of PUFs as security mechanisms for the IoT, and we determine that memory-based PUFs are particularly suited for this function. We observe that the IoT nowadays consists of heterogeneous devices connected over diverse networks, which include both high-end and resource-constrained devices. Therefore, it is essential that a security solution for the IoT is not only effective, but also highly scalable, flexible, lightweight, and cost-efficient, in order to be considered as practical. To this end, we note that PUFs have been proposed as security mechanisms for the IoT in the related work, but the practicality of the relevant security mechanisms has not been sufficiently studied.We, therefore, examine a number of memory-based PUFs that are implemented using Commercial Off-The-Shelf (COTS) components, and assess their potential to serve as acceptable security mechanisms in the context of the IoT, not only in terms of effectiveness and cost, but also under both nominal and adverse conditions, such as ambient temperature and supply voltage variations, as well as in the presence of (ionising) radiation. In this way, we can determine whether memory-based PUFs are truly suitable to be used in the various application areas of the IoT, which may even involve particularly adverse environments, e.g., in IoT applications involving space modules and operations.Finally, we also explore the potential of memory-based PUFs to serve as adequate security mechanisms for the IoT in practice, by presenting and analysing a number of cryptographic protocols based on these PUFs. In particular, we study how memory-based PUFs can be used for key generation, as well as device identification, and authentication, their role as security mechanisms for current and next-generation IoT devices and networks, and their potential for applications in the space segment of the IoT and in other adverse environments. Additionally, this work also discusses how memory-based PUFs can be utilised for the implementation of lightweight reconfigurable PUFs that allow for advanced security applications. In this way, we are able to confirm that memory-based PUFs can indeed provide flexible, scalable, and efficient security solutions for the IoT, in a practical, lightweight, and inexpensive manner.

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Section: Flash-memory-based Pufsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Practical Lightweight Security: Physical Unclonable Functions and the Internet of Things

Anagnostopoulos¹

2022

Preprint

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“…Flash NAND memory has exploded in popularity for remote devices and IoT systems because of its high memory density, low cost, and ability to be programmed and erased electronically without moving parts. [ 6 ].…”

Section: Preliminariesmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…These variations are commonly caused by various disturbs caused by parasitic capacitance. By performing multiple read or program operations on sections of the flash chips, disturbs can be induced on these chips causing random fluctuations and bit flips [ 6 ]. These fluctuations depend on each cell’s relative gate thickness and width which are uncontrollable and extremely hard to model.…”

Section: Preliminariesmentioning

confidence: 99%

A novel IoT sensor authentication using HaLo extraction method and memory chip variability

Gordon

Lyp

Kimbro

et al. 2021

Discov Internet Things

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Since the inception of encrypted messages thousands of years ago, mathematicians and scientists have continued to improve encryption algorithms in order to create more secure means of communication. These improvements came by means of more complex encryption algorithms that have stronger security features such as larger keys and trusted third parties. While many new processors can handle these more complex encryption algorithms, IoT devices on the edge often struggle to keep up with resource intensive encryption standards. In order to meet this demand for lightweight, secure encryption on the edge, this paper proposes a novel solution, called the High and Low (HaLo) method, that generates Physical Unclonable Function (PUF) signatures based on process variations within flash memory. These PUF signatures can be used to uniquely identify and authenticate remote sensors, and help ensure that messages being sent from remote sensors are encrypted adequately without requiring computationally expensive methods. The HaLo method consumes 20x less power than conventional authentication schemes commonly used with IoT devices, it has an average latency of only 39ms for 512 bit signature generation, and the average error rate is below 0.06%. Due to its low latency, low error rate, and high power efficiency, the HaLo method can progress the field of IoT encryption standards by accurately and efficiently authenticating remote sensors without sacrificing encryption integrity.

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“…This key is usually deployed together with a cryptographic primitive to perform identification/authentication protocols [17]. The motivation of using a memory-store for identity can be summarized as follows [18]:…”

Section: Inherently-cloneable Identification Mechanismsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Contemporary Physical Clone-Resistant Identity for IoTs and Emerging Technologies

et al. 2021

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Internet of things (IoT) technologies have recently gained much interest from numerous industries, where devices, machines, sensors, or simply things are linked with each other over open communication networks. However, such an operation environment brings new security threats and technology challenges in securing and stabilizing such large systems in the IoT world. Device identity in such an environment is an essential security requirement as a secure anchor for most applications towards clone-resistant resilient operational security. This paper analyzes different contemporary authenticated identification techniques and discusses possible future technologies for physically clone-resistant IoT units. Two categories of identification techniques to counteract cloning IoT units are discussed. The first category is inherently cloneable and includes the classical identification mechanisms based on secret and public key cryptography. Such techniques deploy mainly secret keys stored permanently somewhere in the IoT devices as classical means to make units clone-resistant. However, such techniques are inherently cloneable as the manufacturer or device personalizers can clone them by re-using the same secret key (which must be known to somebody) or reveal keys to third parties to create cloned entities. In contrast, the second, more resilient category is inherently unclonable because it deploys unknown and hard to predict born analog modules such as physical unclonable functions (PUFs) or mutated digital modules and so-called secret unknown ciphers (SUCs). Both techniques are DNA-like identities and hard to predict and clone even by the manufacturer itself. Born PUFs were introduced two decades ago; however, PUFs as analog functions failed to serve as practically usable unclonable electronic identities due to being costly, unstable/inconsistent, and non-practical for mass application. To overcome the drawbacks of analog PUFs, SUCs techniques were introduced a decade ago. SUCs, as mutated modules, are highly consistent, being digital modules. However, as self-mutated digital modules, they offer only clone-resistant identities. Therefore, the SUC technique is proposed as a promising clone-resistant technology embedded in emerging IoT units in non-volatile self-reconfiguring devices. The main threats and expected security requirements in the emerging IoT applications are postulated. Finally, the presented techniques are analyzed, classified, and compared considering security, performance, and complexity given future expected IoT security features and requirements.

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Flash-Based Security Primitives: Evolution, Challenges and Future Directions

Cited by 8 publications

References 69 publications

Practical Lightweight Security: Physical Unclonable Functions and the Internet of Things

Practical Lightweight Security: Physical Unclonable Functions and the Internet of Things

A novel IoT sensor authentication using HaLo extraction method and memory chip variability

Contemporary Physical Clone-Resistant Identity for IoTs and Emerging Technologies

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