Flashbulb memories and the underlying mechanisms of their formation: Toward an emotional-integrative model

Abstract

Flashbulb memories (FBMs) are detailed recollections of the context in which people first heard about important events. The present study investigates three models of the formation and maintenance of FBM. Two models have previously been proposed in the literature (Brown & Kulik, 1977;Conway et al., 1994). A third model of FBM that integrates theories ofFBM and recent developments in the field of emotions is proposed. The present study compares these three competing models by investigating the FBMs that Belgian citizens developed upon learning of the unexpected death of their king Baudouin. Structural equation modeling revealed that, as compared to the two previously proposed models, the third model, which takes into account emotional processes, better explains FBM.People have detailed memories for circumstances surrounding their discovery of important national events, such as assassinations of public figures (see, e.g., Brown & Kulik, 1977;Christianson, 1989;Colegrove, 1899;Winograd & Killinger, 1983). They remember the specifics of the context in which they first heard about the news: When they heard the news, where they were, what they were doing and with whom, and how they felt upon hearing the news are just a few of the details commonly remembered (see, e.g., Brown & Kulik, 1977). Brown and Kulik called this phenomenon flashbulb memories (FBMs) to indicate surprise and brevity. Even though FBMs are not as accurate or as permanent as the photographic metaphor suggests (Larsen, 1992;Neisser & Harsh, 1992), their forgetResearch reported in this paper was supported by FRFC Grant 8.4510.94. from the Belgian National Fund for Scientific Research and by a grant from the Fonds de Developpement Scientifique of the University of Louvain. It was also facilitated by the support granted by the Maison des Sciences de l'Homme, Paris, to the Consortium for European Research on Emotion (CERE). We gratefully acknowledge the help of Denise Philippot, Philippe Tilquin, and Annick Beerten in collecting the data. We also wish to thank Geoffrey R. Loftus and two anonymous reviewers who provided invaluablecomments and suggestions on an earlier draft. O. L. is Research Assistant at the Belgian National Fund for Scientific Research. A.E. is now at the Department of Psychology, University of Provence, Aix-en-Provence, France. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to C. Finkenauer, Department of Psychology, University of Louvain, Place Cardinal Mercier, 10, B-1348 Louvain-Ia-Neuve, Belgium (e-mail: finkenauer@clis. ucl.ac.be).-Accepted by previous editor, Geoffrey R. Loftus ting curve is far less affected by time than in the case of other types of memories investigated in basic memory research (Bohannon & Symons, 1992;Christianson, 1989; McCloskey, Wible, & Cohen, 1988;Pillemer, 1984).FBMs are cases of autobiographical memories. Because it is well established that emotions have an important influence on autobiographical memory (see, e.g., Conway, 1990;Nigro & Neisser, 1983;Robinson, 1980), it is imperative to cons...

Intensity and memory characteristics of near-death experiences

“…Moreover, previous studies have shown that both personal importance and rehearsal frequency -variables identified in the present study as being associated with NDE's intensity-are two variables playing a crucial role in the maintenance of vivid memories, such as "flashbulb memories" (e.g. Bohannon & Symons, 1992;Finkenauer et al, 1998;Wright & Nunn, 2000). It even appears that these variables are the two most significant factors that allow the differentiation of flashbulb and non-flashbulb memories (Tekcan & Peynircioğlu, 2002) -even more significant than other variables such as emotional valence or the surprise effect.…”

“…where they were when the event occurred, what they were doing) while NDE memories refer to memories of a personally lived experience classically occurring during a life-threatening situation. Nevertheless, it appears that, in both cases, the event seems to benefit from a preferential encoding that makes then them more details than other real or imagined events memories (for NDE memories: see Thonnard et al, 2013; for "flashbulb memories": see Finkenauer et al, 1998;Rubin & Kozin, 1984). Moreover, previous studies have shown that both personal importance and rehearsal frequency -variables identified in the present study as being associated with NDE's intensity-are two variables playing a crucial role in the maintenance of vivid memories, such as "flashbulb memories" (e.g.…”

Flashbulb memories for Paris attacks in an alcohol-abstinent patient

“…The case study design was implemented due the number of variables that were considered: our study assessed event memory, flashbulb memory, as well as subjective reliving of flashbulb memories (i.e., vividness, rehearsal, emotion, surprise, novelty, and importance). The latter characteristics were implemented following research on flashbulb memories in normal subjects [20,[32][33][34] as well as the Autobiographical Memory Questionnaire [35] which was designed to evaluate autobiographical reliving. Because studies with long abstinence duration suggest that recovery or substantial improvements in memory functions can occur [7,[36][37][38], it would be of interest to assess whether flashbulb memories would trigger high recall as well as extensive reliving in alcohol abstinence.…”

Propiedades psicométricas de una prueba de Recuerdos Flashbulb

“…En cuanto a las bases teóricas que fundamentan este cuestionario, los autores acentúan los desarrollos en la investigación psicológica en torno a la evaluación cognitiva de las emociones (Moreira & Gamboa, 2016) y las consecuencias que dicha evaluación tendría en la formulación de un modelo de formación de las MFB. De nuevo, los autores no entregan un análisis detallado de las propiedades del instrumento, aunque cabe aclarar que las variables observables (aquellas que recoge la prueba) son la base para realizar los modelos de ecuación estructural que permiten finalmente a Finkenauer et al (1998) concluir que su modelo alcanza índices más aceptables para la explicación de la formación y mantenimiento de la MFB de la muerte del rey Baudouin comparado con los de Brown y Kulik (1977) y Conway et al (1994).…”

“…La prueba creada por Finkenauer et al (1998) es retomada y modificada por Er (2003) para postular un nuevo modelo de formación para las MFB basado en los recuerdos del contexto de recepción de la noticia del terremoto de Mármaraque afectó a Estambul, Kocaeli y otras regiones de Turquía en 1999. Luego de un análisis factorial exploratorio, el instrumento quedó conformado por 32 ítems.…”