“…The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends a permissible drinking water fluoride level of 1.5 mg/L −1 for maintaining health [ 15 ]. Within this optimal range, fluoride is beneficial for dental health and essential for bone growth and maintenance [ 16 , 17 ]. However, when fluoride concentrations exceed 1.5 mg/L −1 , it can lead to severe health issues, including dental discoloration, skeletal fluorosis, physiological disorders, and kidney malfunctions, among others [ [18] , [19] , [20] ].…”