Following the Water: Characterising de facto Wastewater Reuse in Agriculture in the Netherlands

Beard, Jack E.; Bierkens, Marc F. P.; Bartholomeus, R.P.

doi:10.3390/su11215936

Cited by 22 publications

(14 citation statements)

References 28 publications

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“…Treated-wastewater flows can also provide a substantial source of (clean) freshwater flows for maintenance of river flows, especially during drought (Luthy et al, 2015). Where treated-wastewater discharges form a substantial part of the river flow, de facto wastewater reuse, defined as the incidental presence of treated wastewater in a water supply, can be high (Rice et al, 2013;Beard et al, 2019). Treated wastewater can also be used for groundwater recharge, helping to preserve the viability of freshwater extraction from groundwater into the future (Qadir et al, 2015), in addition to applications in agroforestry systems (El Moussaoui et al, 2019) and aquaculture (Khalil and Hussein, 2008).…”

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confidence: 99%

Country-level and gridded estimates of wastewater production, collection, treatment and reuse

Jones

Vliet

Qadir

et al. 2021

Earth Syst. Sci. Data

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415

165

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Abstract. Continually improving and affordable wastewater management provides opportunities for both pollution reduction and clean water supply augmentation, while simultaneously promoting sustainable development and supporting the transition to a circular economy. This study aims to provide the first comprehensive and consistent global outlook on the state of domestic and manufacturing wastewater production, collection, treatment and reuse. We use a data-driven approach, collating, cross-examining and standardising country-level wastewater data from online data resources. Where unavailable, data are estimated using multiple linear regression. Country-level wastewater data are subsequently downscaled and validated at 5 arcmin (∼10 km) resolution. This study estimates global wastewater production at 359.4×109 m3 yr−1, of which 63 % (225.6×109 m3 yr−1) is collected and 52 % (188.1×109 m3 yr−1) is treated. By extension, we estimate that 48 % of global wastewater production is released to the environment untreated, which is substantially lower than previous estimates of ∼80 %. An estimated 40.7×109 m3 yr−1 of treated wastewater is intentionally reused. Substantial differences in per capita wastewater production, collection and treatment are observed across different geographic regions and by level of economic development. For example, just over 16 % of the global population in high-income countries produces 41 % of global wastewater. Treated-wastewater reuse is particularly substantial in the Middle East and North Africa (15 %) and western Europe (16 %), while comprising just 5.8 % and 5.7 % of the global population, respectively. Our database serves as a reference for understanding the global wastewater status and for identifying hotspots where untreated wastewater is released to the environment, which are found particularly in South and Southeast Asia. Importantly, our results also serve as a baseline for evaluating progress towards many policy goals that are both directly and indirectly connected to wastewater management. Our spatially explicit results available at 5 arcmin resolution are well suited for supporting more detailed hydrological analyses such as water quality modelling and large-scale water resource assessments and can be accessed at https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.918731 (Jones et al., 2020).

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confidence: 99%

Country-level and gridded estimates of wastewater production, collection, treatment and reuse

Jones

Vliet

Qadir

et al. 2021

Earth Syst. Sci. Data

Self Cite

415

165

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show abstract

“…The most common freshwater sources are groundwater and surface water, often perceived as natural waters [24,25]. However, wastewater is already often indirectly (de facto) reused in agriculture, by irrigating with surface water in which treated domestic wastewater is discharged and diluted [26]. For several regions in Europe with agricultural irrigation the impact of wastewater effluent on irrigation water quality has been estimated to be significant [24].…”

Section: Water Demand and Availability And Reuse Applicationsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Responsible Water Reuse Needs an Interdisciplinary Approach to Balance Risks and Benefits

Dingemans

Smeets

Medema

et al. 2020

Water

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Freshwater is a precious resource, and shortages can lead to water stress, impacting agriculture, industry, and other sectors. Wastewater reuse is increasingly considered as an opportunity to meet the freshwater demand. Legislative frameworks are under development to support the responsible reuse of wastewater, i.e., to balance benefits and risks. In an evaluation of the proposed European regulation for water reuse, we concluded that the proposed regulation is not practically feasible, as the water provider alone is responsible for the risk assessment and management, even beyond their span of control. The required knowledge and resources are extensive. Therefore, without clear guidance for implementation, the regulation would hinder implementation of reuse programs. As a consequence, the current practice of uncontrolled, unintentional, and indirect reuse continues, including related risks and inefficiency. Therefore, we provide an outline of the interdisciplinary approach required to design and achieve safe, responsible water reuse. Responsible water reuse requires knowledge of water demand and availability, quality and health, technology, and governance for the various types of application. Through this paper we want to provide a starting point for an interdisciplinary agenda to compile and generate knowledge (databases), approaches, guidelines, case examples, codes of practice, and legislation to help bring responsible water reuse into practice.

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“…High flow conditions may also favor high impact of STP effluent, as during heavy rain sewer overflows will contribute to surface water contamination (Ccanccapa et al 2016;Roberts et al 2016). Water from these streams is in many cases directly applied to crops by sprinkler irrigation, resulting in potential exposure to human pathogens and organic micropollutants (Beard et al 2019;Dulio et al 2018;Munz et al 2016;Schmitt et al 2017;Thebo et al 2017). For example, within the Llobregat river district (Spain), STP effluents were estimated to contribute between 8 and 82% to the total river flow (Drewes et al 2017).…”

Section: De Facto or Unintentional Reusementioning

confidence: 99%

Natural Purification Through Soils: Risks and Opportunities of Sewage Effluent Reuse in Sub-surface Irrigation

Narain-Ford

Bartholomeus

Dekker

et al. 2020

Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology

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At global level there are several guidelines, i.e., non-mandatory recommendations, available concerning water reuse (Table 1). In 2006 the World Health Organization (WHO) published guidelines on the safe use of wastewater, intended as a tool for decision-makers and regulators to provide a consistent level of health protection in different settings. The guidelines can be adapted for implementation under specific environmental, sociocultural, and economic conditions at a national level (WHO 2006). The United States Environmental Protection Agency issued the last version of the "Guidelines for Water Reuse" (USEPA 2012). These guidelines include a wide range of reuse applications (e.g., agricultural irrigation and aquifer recharge) and apply similar approaches as described by the WHO (2006) and the Australian Government Initiative (2006) for controlling health and environmental risks. The most recent global guidelines for STP effluent reuse in agricultural irrigation were published in 2015 by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO 2015). These ISO guidelines include water quality requirements for CoECs. Remarkably, the State of California overtakes these global guidelines with specific regulations for CoECs (California Water Boards 2019). Consequently, these California water reuse regulations are being used as a global benchmark for the development of water reuse regulations worldwide. Noteworthy, California recently signed the Senate Bill No. 996 (Legislative Counsel Bureau 2018), which encourages communities to reuse STP effluent on-site. 2.2 Europe At European level the need to address management of water resources to prevent scarcity and droughts was acknowledged in the EU's Blueprint to safeguard Europe's water resources (Table 1). In this Blueprint the need to use STP effluent as an alternative water resource for irrigation purposes is re-emphasized (European Commission 2012). Six EU Member States

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Following the Water: Characterising de facto Wastewater Reuse in Agriculture in the Netherlands

Cited by 22 publications

References 28 publications

Country-level and gridded estimates of wastewater production, collection, treatment and reuse

Country-level and gridded estimates of wastewater production, collection, treatment and reuse

Responsible Water Reuse Needs an Interdisciplinary Approach to Balance Risks and Benefits

Natural Purification Through Soils: Risks and Opportunities of Sewage Effluent Reuse in Sub-surface Irrigation

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