Force Adaptation across Ages: Investigation of Internal Models in Early Childhood and Adulthood

Abstract

Adapting movements to rapidly changing conditions is fundamental for interacting with our dynamic environment. This adaptability relies on internal models that predict and evaluate sensory outcomes to adjust motor commands. Even infants anticipate object properties for efficient grasping, suggesting the use of internal models. However, how internal models are adapted in early childhood remains largely unexplored. This study investigated a naturalistic force adaptation task in 1.5-, 3-year-olds, and young adults. Participants opened a drawer with temporarily increased resistance, creating sensory prediction errors between predicted and actual drawer dynamics. After perturbation, all age groups showed lower peak speed, longer movement time, and more movement units with trial-wise changes analyzed as adaptation process. Results revealed no age differences in adapting peak speed and movement units, but 1.5- and 3-year-olds exhibited higher trial-to-trial variability and were slower in adapting their movement time, although they also adapted their movement time more strongly. Upon removal of perturbation, we found significant aftereffects across all age groups, indicating effective internal model adaptation. These results suggest that even 1.5-year-olds form internal models of force parameters and adapt them to reduce sensory prediction errors, possibly through more exploration and with more variable movement dynamics compared to adults.