Forests and Energy in Ottoman Anatolia: Fueling Copper Smelters in Ergani and Tokat (1830–1914)

Abstract

Forests were the main sources of thermal energy for smelting in Ottoman Anatolia. Based primarily on Ottoman archival documents, this article examines the fuel supply from forests to the copper smelters in Ergani and Tokat from an environmental perspective. From the mid-18th century on, there was a division of labor between these two metallurgical centers. In Ergani, the initial smelting processes which used both firewood and charcoal transformed ores into black copper. Tokat smelter further refined the copper ingots in two consecutive steps. The first stage, which involved rough processing of ingots in furnaces, required logs. With higher energy density, charcoal was used in the second stage of smelting. The energy dynamics in the smelting operations serve as an illustration of preindustrial natural resource management, encompassing fuel provisioning, peasant labor, and sustainability. To guarantee an uninterrupted supply of wood fuel from nearby forests, the government mobilized rural workers by granting them tax immunities and exemptions from military service. The environmental vulnerability in Ergani was manifested in the depletion of forests around the mine. Despite intense industrial activities, forests in Tokat could support smelting properly thanks to favorable climatic conditions for vegetation. In addition, the use of river for floating down logs expanded the fuel hinterland and alleviated pressure on nearby forests. The beginning of copper exportation at the end of the nineteenth century shifted the burden largely on Ergani and exerted greater pressure on its natural resources, while Tokat saw a reduction in its role as a primary center for smelting.