Form and content in the development of deductive reasoning.

Abstract

Three experiments explored the development of formal logical reasoning between Grades 4 and 12 and the role of semantic content in the solution of Wason's (1966) selection task problems. In Experiment 1, subjects in the 8th, 10th, and 12th grades were tested on several familiar-content and several abstract-content selection problems. In Experiment 2, subjects in Grades 4, 8, and 12 were assessed on the familiar problems used in Experiment 1. In Experiment 3, subjects in Grades 4,6, and 8 were tested on novel familiar-content problems, familiar-content problems with conditional clauses reversed, a meaningful but unfamiliar problem, and an abstract problem. The results suggested that formal logical reasoning is not generally present during the 4th or 6th grades and that formal logical competence becomes available in adolescence. A general facilitation effect was found for familiar semantic content, but this was qualified by one anomalous familiar-content problem in each experiment. The results are discussed in the context of the competence-moderator-performance model, which maintains that both logical knowledge and world knowledge are necessary but distinct features of adequate reasoning performance.A major issue in the field of deductive reasoning concerns the role of logic versus the role of semantic content in determining performance on reasoning problems. One theoretical approach (Overton, 1985;Staudenmayer, 1975) maintains that the development of a logical competence is a necessary prerequisite for solutions to deductive reasoning problems. According to this approach, specific content effects operate as moderators of logical competence to inhibit or enhance successful task performance. From this perspective, both formal reasoning processes and the real-time information-processing strategies related to content effects play essential roles in determining task performance. A second theoretical approach (Griggs, 1983;Mandler, 1983) asserts that formal reasoning processes play little or no role in task performance. According to this approach, task performance is virtually totally determined by context variables such as those provided by specific semantic contents.The aim of the present research is to explore both the role of the development of formal logical reasoning and the role of semantic content in the solution of deductive reasoning problems. The development of formal logical reasoning is represented in Piaget's theory (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958) erton, 1982;Overton, Byrnes, & O'Brien, 1985) have supported the prediction that a fully developed formal logical competence is not available before adolescence. These studies, which focused specifically on conditional inferences, were not, however, solely concerned with the acquisition of logical competence. In addition, the research explored several factors, including task interpretation, cognitive style, and semantic content, as moderators of the logical competence once that competence had been acquired. The present research is also framed by this competence-mode...

Semantic familiarity, relevance, and the development of deductive reasoning.

“…In this task, individuals are given a conditional rule and are required to select conditions that would establish the validity or nonvalidity oftbe rule. The Overton et al (1987) experiments demonstrated that regardless of the specific nature of the content, a developmental progression occurs between 4th and 12th grades and deductive competence is largely unavailable before 8th grade. However, familiar semantic content also significantly enhanced performance.…”

“…Recently, Overton et al (1987) reexamined the role of semantic content in deductive reasoning in a series of developmental experiments that assessed performance on a modified version of the Wason selection task. In this task, individuals are given a conditional rule and are required to select conditions that would establish the validity or nonvalidity oftbe rule.…”

Rationality as a goal of education

“…Although most adolescents appear capable of Stage 3 understanding about the nature of logic, application of this competence to actual problems is imperfect and continues to develop at least through adolescence (O'Brien, 1987;Overton, 1990;Overton et al, 1987). Further reflection on the nature of logic may yield, in some highly educated adults, an increasingly explicit (Stage 4) metalogical understanding of the nature and interrelations of logical system and natural languages (Moshman, 1990a;Politzer, 1986).…”

“…By age 6 or 7 children typically have a fairly clear understanding of the various ways in which appearances can be deceiving and of the need to verify one's conceptions of reality by accumulating evidence, Elementary school-age children are still limited, however, in their level of understanding about the nature and justification of beliefs. Beginning about age 11, adolescents show an increasingly explicit understanding of the distinction between theories and data and the relation between these (Kuhn, 1989;Kuhn et al, 1988), and an increasing inclination to intentionally test theories by directly seeking potentially falsifying data (Moshman, 1979;O'Brien, 1987;O'Brien et al, 1986;O'Brien andOverton, 1980, 1982;Overton et al, 1987;Ward and Overton, 1990). Application of Stage 3 inductive rationality remains inconsistent even in adolescents and adults (Kuhn, 1989;Kuhn et al, 1988;Overton, 1990).…”

Matching Traffic Safety Strategies to Youth Characteristics: A Literature Review of Cognitive Development

“…Conclusion: Therefore, she will not be safer in a crash. (Invalid) As in class-inclusion syllogisms, the validity of the conclusion in conditional reasoning is based upon the information in the premises and the rules of logic.Many studies have documented the fact that conditional reasoning ability improves with age (e.g., Girotto, Gilly, Blaye, & Light, 1989;O'Brien & Overton, 1980;Overton, Ward, Noveck, Black, & O'Brien, 1987;Paris, 1973;Roberge, 1970;Rumain, Connell, & Braine, 1983;Sternberg, 1979;Wildman & Fletcher, 1977). Using a procedure similar to Roberge's (1970), Wildman and Fletcher (1977) asked 281 students, whose average ages were either 14, 16, 18 or 21 years of age, to judge the validity of several if-then syllogisms.…”