Formulation and Evaluation of PVA/Gelatin/Carrageenan Inks for 3D Printing and Development of Tissue‐Engineered Heart Valves

Abstract

Congenital and acquired valvular heart diseases (VHDs) are significant causes of mortality worldwide. With valve replacement being the primary solution for VHD, current options display shortcomings, including calcification, thrombogenicity, and hemodynamic alteration, leading to repetitive surgeries. Tissue engineering, however, has shown great potential for fabricating heart valves (HVs) with fewer complications. Here, a series of inks are developed, combining poly(vinyl alcohol), gelatin, and carrageenan for 3D printing of tissue‐engineered heart valves (TEHVs). The inks/hydrogels are investigated to characterize their physico‐chemical, morphological, mechanical, and rheological characteristics. In vitro and in vivo biocompatibility, immune response, hemolysis, and thrombogenicity of the inks/hydrogels are also evaluated. Moreover, in vitro hydrodynamics of the TEHVs under physiological conditions are reported. Inks demonstrate mechanical characteristics comparable to native leaflets. Subcutaneous implantation reveals that the hydrogels do not induce chronic inflammation and can undergo remodeling. In vitro hemocompatibility assessments of the hydrogels show minimal hemolysis with low thrombogenicity. Different sizes and types of HVs are successfully printed with high fidelity in the air. In vitro hydrodynamic assessment confirms that the TEHVs can withstand aortic conditions. Altogether, the 3D‐printed TEHVs can be a promising alternative for valve replacement to solve the problems associated with the current options.

Polymer-Drug Anti-Thrombogenic and Hemocompatible Coatings as Surface Modifications

“…The results of in vitro hemocompatibility assessments indicate that the 3D-printed heart valves exhibit minimal hemolysis and low thrombogenicity. The successful printing of various sizes and types of tissue-engineered heart valves with a high accuracy, along with their ability to withstand aortic conditions as confirmed by hydrodynamic assessments, suggests that these 3D-printed tissue-engineered heart valves hold promise as an alternative for valve replacement, addressing the limitations associated with current options [ 99 ].…”

Recent Advances in the Modification and Improvement of Bioprosthetic Heart Valves

“…To achieve fibrous scaffolds with micrometric features and anisotropic and viscoelastic mechanical properties 3D biopringting [ 223,224] A technology of developing 3D structures through the layer-by-layer deposition of bioinks…”

Ln‐MOF‐Based Hydrogel Films with Tunable Luminescence and Afterglow Behavior for Visual Detection of Ofloxacin and Anti‐Counterfeiting Applications

“…[34,35] The carrageenan hydrogels demonstrate excellent film-forming ability and is successfully used for fabrication of composite materials with wide application ranges. [36,37] The sulfate groups of carrageenan are not likely to interact with the Ln 3+ centers in MOF and interfere with the luminescent properties, in contrast to other polycarbohydrate (e.g., alginate) or peptide (e.g., gelatin) biopolymers, which contain carboxylic groups. [38] As an anionic hydrogel, carrageenan demonstrates good swelling properties at neutral pH, compared to cationic biopolymers such as chitosan, which requires acidic pH for swelling.…”