Forward and backward associations in cued recall: Predictions from the encoding specificity principle.

Humphreys, Michael S.; Galbraith, Richard C.

doi:10.1037/0278-7393.1.6.702

Cited by 20 publications

(30 citation statements)

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“…For example, it would be strengthened by having the subject read the word coldbut not by generating the antonym to hot (see Jacoby, 1983). In contrast, the association between needle and thread may not be strengthened by the presentation of thread unless needle is generated or all possible associations are strengthened (see Humphreys et al, 1989;Humphreys & Galbraith, 1975;Humphreys et al, in press).…”

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Recency effects in direct and indirect memory tasks

McKenzie

Humphreys

1991

Memory & Cognition

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In three experiments, subjects learned two lists under incidental conditions and were then given either a part-word or a word (extralist associate) cue. Each cue was related to one word in each list. Half the subjects were given production instructions (an indirect memory test), and half were given cued recall instructions (a direct memory test). When the interval between List 2 and the test was shortened, recency effects were found for part-word cues for both cued recall and production instructions. Little or no recency effects were found with word cues. These results are incompatible with a simple distinction between the types of memory trace or information that are tapped by direct as opposed to indirect memory tasks. Possible causes for the recency effect and for the difference between word and part-word cues are discussed. 321According to Richardson-Klavehn and Bjork (1988), the tasks that Humphreys, Bain, and Pike (1989) refer to as cued recall and production can be classified as direct and indirect memory tasks, respectively. A direct memory task is defined by the instructions to subjects to utilize information about a particular episode. In the case of cued recall, subjects study a list of words and are then asked to retrieve those words with the aid of cues. The instructions specify the episode in which the target words have occurred and state the relationship between cues and targets. More specifically, in the case of part-word cues, the subjects are provided with cues that are partial representations of the target words (i.e., stems, endings, or fragments). They are told that each cue is part of a word from the target list, and they are asked to add letters to complete each cue with a word from the specified episode. Ifextralist word cues are provided (e.g., taxonomic category labels or preexisting associates of the target words), the subjects are told that each cue is related to a word from the target episode and should help them to recall the words from the list.In contrast, an indirect memory task is defined by instructions that do not make any reference to a particular episode, but refer only to the task at hand. This classification includes the production task of interest in this paper. The term production is used by Humphreys et al. (1989) to refer to an indirect retrieval task. This type of task requires subjects, after studying a list of words, to produceThe first two experiments constituted part of the first author's Master's thesis at the University of Queensland. They and the third experiment were supported by a grant from the Australian Research Council to the second author. We wish to thankJ. Bain and D. Nelson for their helpful comments on the thesis, and P. Graf, M. Masson, L. Jacoby, B. Stein, and particularly J. Chumbley, for their helpful comments on an earlier draft of this paper. W. McKenzie is now at Monash University. Send reprint requests to M. Humphreys,

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Recency effects in direct and indirect memory tasks

McKenzie

Humphreys

1991

Memory & Cognition

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“…In contrast, such study would not affect the probability that "closet" will be produced to a cue that is not activated by the target, such as BROOM, because it is not a reliable associate of CLOSET . The target association hypothesis relies on the encoding specificity principle for explainingpriming effects (Humphreys & Galbraith, 1975;Nelson, McKinney, Gee, & Janczura., 1998;Tulving & Thomson, 1973). It predicts that priming will be obtained only when the prime cue has been encoded during the study trial, regardless of whether a measurable forward link is present.…”

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Experiencing a word can prime its accessibility and its associative connections to related words

Nelson

Goodmon

2002

Memory & Cognition

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This paper reports the results of manipulations of word features for the magnitude of priming effects. In Experiment 1, the printed frequency of the target words and the number of connections among their associates were varied, and during testing participants were given cues and asked to produce the first word to come to mind as rapidly as possible in implicit free association. Priming effects were greater for lowfrequency words and for those with many connections among their associates.In Experiments 2 and 3, target words were presented under incidental or intentional learning conditions during study, and the presence of direct preexisting connections from targetto cue and from cue to targetwas varied. Priming effects were greater when either connection was present, with each connection having additive effects. In Experiments 4 and 5, priming effects for indirect links (shared associatesand mediators) were examined. The results of these experiments indicate that priming in free association depends on both the general accessibility of the target as a response and the strengthening of direct target-to-cue connections. These findings raise problems for theories that attribute priming only to target accessibility or only to target-to-cue association.

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“…Under these circumstances, interference from weak: associations between cues with other items in the priming set is likely, and the cued-recall test was expected to elicit levels of recall too low to allow detection of a difference between the groups. The vulnerability of cued recall to the presence of weak cue-target associations has been demonstrated by Humphreys and Galbraith (1975).…”

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confidence: 99%

Associative priming in perceptual identification: Effects of prime-processing requirements

et al. 1993

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Three experiments assessed the effects of prime-processing instructions on associative priming in word identification and episodic memory for primes. In Experiment 1, groups instructed to read the prime silently or generate silently an associate of the prime showed a larger accuracy benefit for related over unrelated targets than did a group that decided whether an asterisk was to the right or left of the prime. The asterisk-search group showed a weaker repetition effect on a subsequent identification test of primes, indicating that the weaker priming in this group was a result of poorer perceptual processing. On a cued-recall test for primes, the generate group was superior to the other groups. In Experiment 2, we found that with weak prime-target associations, priming was comparable for read and generate groups and stronger than estimated for a guessing strategy, on the basis of single predictions made from each prime by an additional group. In Experiment 3, we demonstrated that the read and generate instructions produced similar mispriming and inhibitory effects. The results suggest that the depths of prime-processing manipulations do not have parallel effects on priming and episodic memory, and that associative priming in word identification, as in other tasks, may involve an expectancy process.

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Forward and backward associations in cued recall: Predictions from the encoding specificity principle.

Cited by 20 publications

References 5 publications

Recency effects in direct and indirect memory tasks

Recency effects in direct and indirect memory tasks

Experiencing a word can prime its accessibility and its associative connections to related words

Associative priming in perceptual identification: Effects of prime-processing requirements

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