Four‐dimensional flow MRI for quantitative assessment of cerebrospinal fluid dynamics: Status and opportunities

Abstract

Neurological disorders can manifest with altered neurofluid dynamics in different compartments of the central nervous system. These include alterations in cerebral blood flow, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) flow, and tissue biomechanics. Noninvasive quantitative assessment of neurofluid flow and tissue motion is feasible with phase contrast magnetic resonance imaging (PC MRI). While two‐dimensional (2D) PC MRI is routinely utilized in research and clinical settings to assess flow dynamics through a single imaging slice, comprehensive neurofluid dynamic assessment can be limited or impractical. Recently, four‐dimensional (4D) flow MRI (or time‐resolved three‐dimensional PC with three‐directional velocity encoding) has emerged as a powerful extension of 2D PC, allowing for large volumetric coverage of fluid velocities at high spatiotemporal resolution within clinically reasonable scan times. Yet, most 4D flow studies have focused on blood flow imaging. Characterizing CSF flow dynamics with 4D flow (i.e., 4D CSF flow) is of high interest to understand normal brain and spine physiology, but also to study neurological disorders such as dysfunctional brain metabolite waste clearance, where CSF dynamics appear to play an important role. However, 4D CSF flow imaging is challenged by the long T1 time of CSF and slower velocities compared with blood flow, which can result in longer scan times from low flip angles and extended motion‐sensitive gradients, hindering clinical adoption. In this work, we review the state of 4D CSF flow MRI including challenges, novel solutions from current research and ongoing needs, examples of clinical and research applications, and discuss an outlook on the future of 4D CSF flow.

Modeling cerebrospinal fluid dynamics across the entire intracranial space through integration of four-dimensional flow and intravoxel incoherent motion magnetic resonance imaging

“…Complex CSF motions comprise a steady microflow produced by the rhythmic wavy movement of motile cilia on the ventricular wall surface [1,2]; dynamic multidirectional pulsatile, laminar, and turbulent flows produced by pulsations of the brain and cerebral arteries [2][3][4][5][6][7][8], and an uncertain flow produced by respiration and head movement [9][10][11][12]. However, measuring very small complex CSF motions with a velocity of < 0.1 cm/s had been difficult using conventional phase-contrast magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) [4,13] and four-dimensional (4D) flow MRI [6,7,[14][15][16]. Furthermore, previous CSF dynamic studies have measured pulsatile CSF motions in the ventricles, including the foramen of Magendie, cerebral aqueduct, and foramina of Monro, and subarachnoid spaces in the posterior fossa, including the prepontine cistern and craniocervical junction, but not in the Sylvian fissures or the convexity part of the subarachnoid spaces [3][4][5][6][7][8][13][14][15][16].…”

“…However, measuring very small complex CSF motions with a velocity of < 0.1 cm/s had been difficult using conventional phase-contrast magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) [4,13] and four-dimensional (4D) flow MRI [6,7,[14][15][16]. Furthermore, previous CSF dynamic studies have measured pulsatile CSF motions in the ventricles, including the foramen of Magendie, cerebral aqueduct, and foramina of Monro, and subarachnoid spaces in the posterior fossa, including the prepontine cistern and craniocervical junction, but not in the Sylvian fissures or the convexity part of the subarachnoid spaces [3][4][5][6][7][8][13][14][15][16]. Furthermore, these complex pulsatile CSF motions have been considered to be mainly driven by arterial pulsations [10,15,17,18] and decrease with aging because of declines in brain volume, arterial elasticity, and circulating cerebral blood volume [6,8,19,20].…”

“…Furthermore, previous CSF dynamic studies have measured pulsatile CSF motions in the ventricles, including the foramen of Magendie, cerebral aqueduct, and foramina of Monro, and subarachnoid spaces in the posterior fossa, including the prepontine cistern and craniocervical junction, but not in the Sylvian fissures or the convexity part of the subarachnoid spaces [3][4][5][6][7][8][13][14][15][16]. Furthermore, these complex pulsatile CSF motions have been considered to be mainly driven by arterial pulsations [10,15,17,18] and decrease with aging because of declines in brain volume, arterial elasticity, and circulating cerebral blood volume [6,8,19,20]. These age-related changes in CSF dynamics and volumes, including metabolism, are of interest because they are thought to be associated with dementia and neurodegenerative diseases by impairing the excretion of neurotoxic wastes from the brain [18,[21][22][23].…”