Fractionation of Potentially Toxic Elements (PTEs) in Urban Soils from Salzburg, Thessaloniki and Belgrade: An Insight into Source Identification and Human Health Risk Assessment

Abstract

Concentrations of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) (Al, As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn) were measured in topsoil samples collected from parks in the cities of Salzburg (Austria), Thessaloniki (Greece), and Belgrade (Serbia) in order to assess the distribution of PTEs in the urban environment, discriminate natural (lithogenic) and anthropogenic contributions, identify possible sources of pollution, and compare levels of pollution between the cities. An assessment of the health risks caused by exposure to PTEs through different pathways was also conducted. The study revealed that, with the exception of Pb in Salzburg, levels of PTEs in the soils in polluted urban parks were higher than in unpolluted ones, but still lower than those recorded in other European soils. Results of sequential analyses showed that Al, Cr, and Ni were found in residual phases, proving their predominantly lithogenic origin and their low mobility. In contrast, the influence of anthropogenic factors on Cu, Pb, and Zn was evident. Site-dependent variations showed that the highest concentrations of As, Cu, Pb, and Zn of anthropogenic origin were recorded in Salzburg, while the highest levels of Al, Cr, and Ni of lithogenic origin were recorded in Belgrade and Thessaloniki, which reflects the specificity of the geological substrates. Results obtained for the health risk assessment showed that no human health risk was found for either children or adults.

Chemical Fractionation, Environmental, and Human Health Risk Assessment of Potentially Toxic Elements in Soil of Industrialised Urban Areas in Serbia

“…A comparison of PTE content in urban soils in some Serbian cities and European urban soils is shown in Table 3. When comparing results of PTEs content obtained in this research with results from our previous research [4,73], levels of Mn were found to be similar, but Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn concentrations were higher. On the other hand, Cr, Cu, Pb, and Zn content in soils in Novi Sad [74], Lisbon [79], and Thessaloniki [73] was similar, but Ni was somewhat lower than the levels measured in this research (Table 2).…”

“…When comparing results of PTEs content obtained in this research with results from our previous research [4,73], levels of Mn were found to be similar, but Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn concentrations were higher. On the other hand, Cr, Cu, Pb, and Zn content in soils in Novi Sad [74], Lisbon [79], and Thessaloniki [73] was similar, but Ni was somewhat lower than the levels measured in this research (Table 2). Similarities in terms of PTE content were also found in soils from Šabac [75] and Kragujevac [76], where concentrations of most of the examined elements were similar to those determined in this research, with the exception of the higher content of Cr in Kragujevac and Mn in Šabac.…”

Assessment of the Levels of Potentially Toxic Elements Contained in Natural Bentonites Collected from Quarries in Turkey

“…PTEs in the environment originate from various human activities (mining, chemical, and metallurgical industries, smelting procedures, agriculture, traffic, etc.) and natural (lithogenic) sources such as volcanic eruptions and weathering of element-containing rocks. , Mining activities involving many processing methods such as grinding the rock and ores, recovering the desired fraction, and dumping the waste into a tailing or holding pond are among the main sources of PTEs in the environment. − PTE elements released into the surrounding environment during mining not only affect soil quality but also threaten food safety of crops grown in polluted soil and human health. In addition, exposure to PTEs can pose a health problem for miners. ,− …”

Using Fractionation Profile of Potentially Toxic Elements in Soils to Investigate Their Accumulation in Tilia sp. Leaves in Urban Areas with Different Pollution Levels

“…Therefore, analysis of urban soils is important since the chemical composition of soil reflects both the soil lithogenic and the anthropogenic inputs of pollutants from industrial facilities and traffic. So far, most research has focused on the influence of the labile fraction of heavy metals in soil on bioavailability [8,17,[21][22][23], with only a small number of studies discussing the effects of the fractionation of PTEs in soils (especially acid-soluble, oxide-bound, organic matter-bound fractions) as a factor of the bioaccumulation of elements by plants in urban sites. It is recognized that the labile fraction determined by sequential extraction can enter plants easily; thus, the ecological effect of potentially toxic elements is closely related to mobility and speciation of these chemical elements [8,[24][25][26].…”