“…To analyze the dispersion of prefabricated fragments in the full spatial and temporal domain, Wang et al [ 21 ] used the continuum–discontinuum element method [ 22 ] to investigate the large deformation and cross-scale calculations of the warhead rupture process. The current research on shell fracture and fragments formation additionally includes different shell thicknesses [ 23 ], variable charge geometries [ 24 ], ductile metal shear fracture [ 25 , 26 ], end-constrained casing fracture [ 27 ], cylindrical discontinuous charges [ 28 ], axial velocity distribution [ 29 , 30 , 31 ], and the effect of initial velocity on fragment size [ 32 , 33 ]. Currently, natural fragment formation studies mainly involve thick-walled shells and low charge-to-shell ratios, resulting in slower initial fragment scattering velocities [ 34 , 35 , 36 ].…”