Frequency and Determinants of Vitamin D Deficiency Among Premenopausal and Postmenopausal Women: A Multicenter Study in Karachi, Pakistan

Abstract

Background: Vitamin D deficiency is becoming a serious public health problem, even in sun-drenched cities like Karachi, Pakistan. We investigated the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency VDD and its association with sociodemographic characteristics, anthropometric measures, and lifestyle factors among Pakistani women (n = 784). Methods: Face-to-face interviews were conducted to collect information from premenopausal and menopausal women and serum 25(OH)D was measured after the interview. Results: The mean age of the women was 46.2 years, and the mean 25-hydroxyvitamin D (+/- SD) levels were 22.9 ng/ml (+/-20.3). A total of 57% of women were vitamin D deficient with higher vitamin D deficiency found among premenopausal (64.7%) women compared to menopausal women (49%). Factors associated with vitamin D deficiency were lower socioeconomic status (OR 2.00; 95% CI 1.15–3.48), younger age with highest vitamin D deficiency in < 35 years of age (OR 3.11; 95% CI 1.76–5.51), and winter season (OR 1.51, 95% CI 1.07-2.15) after adjusting for multiple confounders. The use of vitamin D supplement use (OR 0.59, 95% CI 0.38-0.92) and vigorous exercise (OR 0.20, 95 % CI 0.05-0.80) was protective against vitamin D deficiency. Conclusions: The study shows a high prevalence of vitamin D deficiency, with detrimental health effects among younger women belonging to lower socioeconomic status during the winter season. The use of vitamin D supplements and vigorous exercise were protective measures. Public health campaigns are needed for education and awareness about vitamin D deficiency to improve vitamin D status for younger women living in poor environments.

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