Frizzled receptors in melanomagenesis: From molecular interactions to target identification

Abstract

Frizzled (FZD) proteins are receptors for the WNT family ligands. Inherited human diseases and genetic experiments using knockout mice have revealed a central role of FZDs in multiple aspects of embryonic development and tissue homeostasis. Misregulated FZD signaling has also been found in many cancers. Recent studies on three out of the ten mammalian FZDs in melanoma have shown that they promote tumor cell proliferation and invasion, via the activation of the canonical WNT/β-catenin or non-canonical PCP signaling pathway. In this concise review, we summarize our current knowledge of individual FZDs in melanoma, discuss the involvement of both the canonical and non-canonical pathways, and describe ongoing efforts to target the FZD receptors for melanoma treatment.

G proteins: introduction of its history, structure, function, and drug development

“…G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) is the largest kind of cell surface receptors and are responsible for Gprotein activation on ligand binding [6]. The downstream effects of G-protein signalling vary widely, including alterations in ion channel activities [7], second messenger production [8], and gene expression [9] 9= . Given their importance in cellular signaling, G proteins have been the subject of intense research over the past few decades.…”