From Clinical Application to Cognitive Enhancement: The Example of Methylphenidate

Abstract

Methylphenidate (MPD) is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant, which belongs to the phenethylamine group and is mainly used in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD). However, a growing number of young individuals misuse or abuse MPD to sustain attention, enhance intellectual capacity and increase memory. Recently, the use of MPD as a cognitive enhancement substance has received much attention and raised concerns in the literature and academic circles worldwide. The prescribing frequency of the drug has increased sharply as consequence of the more accurate diagnosis of the ADHD and the popularity of the drug itself due to its beneficial short-term effect. However, careful monitoring is required, because of possible abuse.In this review different aspects concerning the use of MPD have been approached. Data showing its abuse among college students are given, when the drug is prescribed short term beneficial effects and side effects are provided; moreover studies on animal-models suggesting long lasting negative effects on healthy brains are discussed. Finally, emphasis is given to the available formulations and pharmacology.

Pharmacological Human Enhancement: An Overview of the Looming Bioethical and Regulatory Challenges

“…Substances interacting with the mediators of memory and learning circuits such as glutamate, dopamine, and norepinephrine can potentially improve brain function in healthy users, even to the point of improving their baseline levels of functioning. That is already happening: non-medical use of prescription stimulants such as methylphenidate and the illicit use of psychostimulants for cognitive enhancement have risen among adolescents and young adults in schools and college campuses (8,25,26). However, there may be health and ethical costs.…”

Use of Methylphenidate Analogues as Cognitive Enhancers: The Prelude to Cosmetic Neurology and an Ethical Issue

“…Methylphenidate was proven to lower drug abuse liability in patients with ADHD. Still, it may also lead to similar behavioral rigidity and increase the risk for addictive or obsessive-compulsive behaviors, since the drug impacts glutamatergic signalling (3,5).…”

“…A major issue is the current medical acceptance, or even endorsement, of interventions intended to restore or sustain "normality." Both explicitly and implicitly, such a stance arguably adheres to the idea of a set of essential sociocultural requirements to function "normally", considering abnormal or antisocial any deviation from established standards (3).…”

“…Indeed, the non-medical use of methylphenidate and cognitive enhancers in an attempt to improve memory, increase mental concentration, control anxiety, and stimulate motivation and creativity is a rising worldwide phenomenon (2, 3). Due to methylphenidate being a prescription drug with medical restrictions in several countries, many illegal analogues have emerged on the internet and darknet drug markets during the last few years (3).…”

Comparison of the VTA and LC response to methylphenidate: a concomitant behavioral and neuronal study of adolescent male rats

“…Moreover, as competitiveness in demanding academic settings rises, adolescents turn to improper use of MPD for its potential enhancement of executive functions, including working memory and cognitive control (Smith and Farah 2011;Volkow and Swanson 2013;Zuvekas and Vitiello 2012). Furthermore, a growing number of young adults are selling and abusing prescription MPD for profit and recreation (Busardò et al 2016;Chen et al 2015;Greely et al 2008;Setlik et al 2009). Thus it is essential to thoroughly study the effects of MPD on normal adolescent subjects.…”