From Gel to Crystal: Mechanism of HfO₂ and ZrO₂ Nanocrystal Synthesis in Benzyl Alcohol

Abstract

Nonaqueous sol−gel syntheses have been used to make many types of metal oxide nanocrystals. According to the current paradigm, nonaqueous syntheses have slow kinetics, thus favoring the thermodynamic (crystalline) product. Here we investigate the synthesis of hafnium (and zirconium) oxide nanocrystals from the metal chloride in benzyl alcohol. We follow the transition from precursor to nanocrystal through a combination of rheology, EXAFS, NMR, TEM, and X-ray total scattering (PDF analysis). Upon dissolving the metal chloride precursor, the exchange of chloride ligands for benzylalkoxide liberates HCl. The latter catalyzes the etherification of benzyl alcohol, eliminating water. During the temperature ramp to the reaction temperature (220 °C), sufficient water is produced to turn the reaction mixture into a macroscopic gel. Rheological analysis shows a network consisting of strong interactions with temperature-dependent restructuring. After a few minutes at the reaction temperature, crystalline particles emerge from the gel, and nucleation and growth are complete after 30 min. In contrast, 4 h are required to obtain the highest isolated yield, which we attribute to the slow in situ formation of water (the extraction solvent). We used our mechanistic insights to optimize the synthesis, achieving high isolated yields with a reduced reaction time. Our results oppose the idea that nonaqueous sol−gel syntheses necessarily form crystalline products in one step, without a transient, amorphous gel state.