From Interpersonal Violence to Institutionalized Discrimination: Documenting and Assessing the Impact of Islamophobia on Muslim American

Abstract

Background: Muslims and people perceived as Muslims in the U.S. face Islamophobia, defined as anti-Muslim or anti-Islam sentiments. Reports of hate crimes motivated by Islamophobia have increased, as have other forms of Islamophobia, such as workplace discrimination. This qualitative study examined the impact of Islamophobia on Muslim Americans, ranging from school and workplace discrimination to policies that target Muslims, such as government surveillance. The objectives of this study were: 1) Document the spectrum of Islamophobia in the U.S.; and 2) Assess the impact of Islamophobia on Muslim Americans.Methods: Components of grounded theory guided data collection and analysis. Using a semi-structured interview guide, a total of 40 participants (20 women, 20 men) were interviewed regarding self-reported experiences with Islamophobia and responses to bias incidents. Participants self-identified as Muslim, were at least 18 years of age, and represented various ethnic groups. Interviews were audio recorded, transcribed, and analyzed using Nvivo 12.Results: Findings indicate that Islamophobia and xenophobia are significant sources of long-term stress. Participants discussed physical assaults in public locations, vandalism at their homes, persistent questioning regarding their country of origin, and verbal harassment in the form of derogatory terms.Conclusion: Islamophobia in the U.S. is multifaceted and a significant source of stress for Muslim Americans. Findings from this study and others on this topic highlight the need for interventions to support Muslim Americans.

Discrimination and Mental Health Outcomes Among 1.5- and 2nd-Generation Muslim College Students

“…For example, a qualitative study based on 40 interviews with young Muslim women indicated that 85% of participants experienced verbal assaults or threats in public spaces, and that 25% reported experiencing physical violence in public spaces (Alimahomed-Wilson, 2017). Furthermore, there has been a rise in discrimination and profiling on airplanes, in workplaces, educational institutions, and other settings (Ahluwalia & Pellettiere, 2010;Ahmed et al, 2021;Amri & Bemak, 2013;CAIR, 2021;Hunt et al, 2020;Jalalzai, 2011;Pew Research Center, 2017), and in reports of more subtle microaggressions (Hunt et al, 2020;Nadal et al, 2012). Notably, Islamophobia in the United States surged again in the face of negative political rhetoric against Muslims during Donald Trump's presidential campaign and presidency, as well as policies such as the travel ban restricting entry to the United States from Muslimmajority countries in 2017 (Ahmed et al, 2021;CAIR, 2021;Tummala-Narra, 2021) more recently, in 2023, hate crimes rooted in Islamophobia and anti-Arab sentiment, along with anti-Semitism, have been on the rise amid the Israel-Hamas war ("Islamophobia and Antisemitism on Rise .…”

“…It is surprising that social support from family, friends, and significant others did not seem to protect against the negative mental health effects of all three types of discrimination (everyday discrimination, Islamophobia, and negative racial experiences on campus). It is possible that there are other buffers to discrimination-related stress, such as religious and spiritual practices, engagement in social action, a sense of self-efficacy, or a combination of these different factors depending on the context and type of discrimination (Ahmed et al, 2021). In addition, our participants may have had access to differential degrees of social support depending on the racial composition of their college campuses, as those attending predominantly non-White colleges reported a greater degree of social support.…”

“…Islamophobia has been defined as a form of religious discrimination encompassing hostile attitudes and behavior toward Muslims that often co-exists with other forms of discrimination based on race, ethnicity, national origin, gender, and physical markers (e.g., skin color, clothing, Abu-Ras et al, 2018). Muslim Americans face discrimination rooted in Islamophobia, racism, and xenophobia within various contexts, such as school, neighborhoods, public spaces (e.g., stores), workplaces, media, and social media (Ahmed et al, 2021; Alsaidi et al, 2021; Awad et al, 2019; Lowe, Tineo, Bonumwezi, & Bailey, 2019; Lowe, Tineo, & Young, 2019). It is important to note that racialization of Muslims in the United States existed prior to 9/11, as evident in stereotypes of Muslims as misogynistic and violent (Cainkar & Selod, 2018; Hummel et al, 2020).…”

“We are America’s Number One Enemy”: The Experiences of Middle Eastern Muslim Men College Students Navigating Higher Education in the United States

“…After September 11, 2001, a nation-shattering event, a bifurcation of U.S. history was created, splitting into "Pre-9/11" and "Post-9/11." As a result, an additional negative shift in thinking regarding Muslims began Post-9/11 (Ahmed et al, 2021;Ogan et al, 2014;Uddin, Williams & Alcock, 2022). According to Dudziak (2011), "In the past decade, Muslims in the United States has gone from relative obscurity to a sociological dilemma" (p. 6).…”

“…Muslim students in higher education are affected by the hardships of oppression, discrimination, prejudices, and stereotypes associated with the increasing Islamophobia and xenophobia within the United States (Ahmed et al, 2021;Ali, 2019;Jackson, 2010;Meijer et al, 2022;Neider, 2011;Ogan et al, 2014). While a few scholars have aimed to understand the experiences of Muslim women (i.e., Cole & Ahmadi, 2003;Mir, 2014), literature is absent on the experiences of Muslim men college students in the U.S.…”