From Kratom to mitragynine and its derivatives: Physiological and behavioural effects related to use, abuse, and addiction

Hassan, Zurina; Mustapha, Muzaimi; Navaratnam, V.; Yusoff, Nurul H.M.; Suhaimi, Farah Wahida; Vadivelu, Raja; Vicknasingam, Balasingam; Amato, Davide; Hörsten, Stephan von; Ismail, Nurul Iman W.; Jayabalan, Nanthini; Hazim, Ammar Imad; Mansor, Sharif Mahsufi; Müller, Christian P.

doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.11.012

Cited by 303 publications

(361 citation statements)

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“…The historically Bminor^alkaloid constituent 7-hydroxymitragynine was found to be 109-520 % more concentrated in 7/8 capsule formulations studied. This research also highlights the need for regulations to prevent boosting the concentration of addictive Kratom is sold on the internet and in specialty stores (i.e., head shops) as capsules, tablets, powder, concentrated extract, gum, or raw leaves for chewing or brewing tea [6,13,31]. Reported benefits include anticancer and antioxidant effects [32,33], antiinflammatory properties [34], appetite reduction, glycemic control, treatment of chronic pain [35,36], antidepressant actions [37], antidiarrheal and antimalarial properties [1,38], treatment of ethanol [36,39] or opioid withdrawal [1,40,41], and antibacterial activity [33].…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…speciosa contains over 40 different alkaloids which comprise 0.5-1.5 % of the plant matter [12,13]. Of these, the most clinically consequential are mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine, compounds which are found exclusively in M. speciosa [6,14,15].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Of these, the most clinically consequential are mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine, compounds which are found exclusively in M. speciosa [6,14,15]. Mitragynine, a major indolecontaining constituent similar in structure to yohimbine [13], accounts for up to 66 % of the plant's alkaloid content [15,16]. It produces opioid-like effects predominantly via mu-and delta-opioid receptor agonism [5,13,17] in addition to modulation of the descending serotonergic and noradrenergic pathways [18].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Mitragynine, a major indolecontaining constituent similar in structure to yohimbine [13], accounts for up to 66 % of the plant's alkaloid content [15,16]. It produces opioid-like effects predominantly via mu-and delta-opioid receptor agonism [5,13,17] in addition to modulation of the descending serotonergic and noradrenergic pathways [18]. In vitro characterization of mitragynine receptor binding in the central nervous system reveals the complexity with which Kratom acts (see Table 1) [10].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Suspected Adulteration of Commercial Kratom Products with 7-Hydroxymitragynine

et al. 2016

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Introduction Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa), a plant native to Southeast Asia, has been used for centuries for its stimulant and opium-like effects. Mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine, exclusive to M. speciosa, are the alkaloids primary responsible for Kratom's biologic and psychoactive profile, and likely contribute to its problematic use. We purchased several commercially available Kratom analogs for analysis and through our results, present evidence of probable adulteration with the highly potent and addictive plant alkaloid, 7-hydroxymitragynine. Methods A simple and sensitive LC-MS/MS method was developed for simultaneous quantification of mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine in methanol extract of marketed Kratom supplements. Results We found multiple commercial Kratom products to have concentrations of 7-hydroxymitragynine that are substantially higher than those found in raw M. speciosa leaves. Conclusions We have found multiple packaged commercial Kratom products likely to contain artificially elevated concentrations of 7-hydroxymitragynine, the alkaloid responsible for M. speciosa's concerning mechanistic and side effect profile. This study describes a unique form of product adulteration, which stresses the importance of increased dietary supplement oversight of Kratom-containing supplements.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

See 2 more Smart Citations

Suspected Adulteration of Commercial Kratom Products with 7-Hydroxymitragynine

et al. 2016

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“…1 C y D). El más abundante es la mitraginina (66%), seguido de la 7-hidroximitraginina, menos frecuente (2%) pero algo más potente que la anterior 23 .…”

Section: Kratomunclassified

Drogas emergentes (III): plantas y hongos alucinógenos

Burillo-Putzé

Briz

Díaz

et al. 2013

Anales Sis San Navarra

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resUMenSe ha observado un aumento del consumo de sustancias vegetales con efecto alucinógeno, algunas de ellas asociadas a ceremonias religiosas ancestrales, siendo muchas de estas sustancias legales o con una regulación parcial.Salvia divinorum es un potente agonista de los receptores kappa, con propiedades disociativas y alucinógenas, de inicio rápido y corta duración. El Kratom (Mytragyna speciosa), posee como alcaloide principal la mitraginina, con efectos estimulantes a dosis bajas (efecto coca-like), y efectos sedativos (efecto opioide-like) a dosis altas. Se han detectado varias muertes asociadas a su consumo. El consumo de hongos alucinógenos aparece de forma cíclica, aunque se ha incrementado su oferta on-line. Se consumen buscando sus efectos alucinógenos sobre todo los pertenecientes a la familia de los psilocybes, los cuales contienen triptaminas con efecto alucinógeno, similar al LSD. El peyote (Lophophora williamsii), cactus rico en mescalina (trimetoxifeniletilamina), produce alucinaciones de los cinco sentidos, y forma parte de la cultura religiosa de los indios norteamericanos.Las daturas, de gran ubicuidad, producen un cuadro anticolinérgico y efectos sobre el sistema nervioso central (delirios, alucinaciones, etc), por su alto contenido en atropina y escopolamina. Otras sustancia utilizadas por sus efectos alucinatorios incluyen la bebida conocida como ayahuasca, y semillas para preparación de infusiones como el Ololiuqui, la Gloria de la mañana (Ipomoea violacea), la Rosa de Hawai (Argyreia nervosa), la Ruda borde (Peganum harmala), y la Iboga (Tabernanthe iboga).Palabras clave. Smart-drugs. Plantas alucinógenas. Setas mágicas. Salvia divinorum. Kratom. Ayahuasca. ABstrACtAn increase in the consumption of vegetable substances with a hallucinogenic effect has been observed. Some of these substances are associated with ancestral religious ceremonies, while many of them are legal or are partially regulated.Salvia divinorum is a powerful kappa receptor agonist, with dissociative and hallucinogenic properties, which start quickly and have a short duration. Kratom (Mytragyna speciosa) has mitragynine as its principal alkaloid, with stimulating effects at low doses (coke-like effect), and sedative effects (opiate-like effect) at high doses. Several deaths from its consumption have been detected. The consumption of hallucinogenic mushrooms appears in cyclic form, although there has been increase in their online offer. They are consumed in search of their hallucinogenic effects, above all those belonging to the family of psilocybes, which contain tryptamines with a hallucinogenic effect similar to LSD. Peyote (Lophophora psilocybes), a cactus rich in mescaline (trimetoxifeniletilamina), produces hallucinations of the five senses, and forms part of the religious culture of the North American Indians.Daturas, which are ubiquitous, produce anticholinergic symptoms and effects on the central nervous system (delirium, hallucinations, etc.), due to their high atropine and scopolamine content. Other substanc...

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Mitragyna Species

2020

Secondary Metabolites of Medicinal Plants

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From Kratom to mitragynine and its derivatives: Physiological and behavioural effects related to use, abuse, and addiction

Cited by 303 publications

References 116 publications

Suspected Adulteration of Commercial Kratom Products with 7-Hydroxymitragynine

Suspected Adulteration of Commercial Kratom Products with 7-Hydroxymitragynine

Drogas emergentes (III): plantas y hongos alucinógenos

Mitragyna Species

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