From Petty Corruption to Criminal State

Abstract

Offering a decent database easily applicable to cross-country comparison, Transparency International’s Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) has been widely used as a variable for showing the level of corruption. However, surveys of its sources are based on presumptions which mainly apply to bottom-up forms of corruption, namely free market corruption and bottom-up state capture, and therefore it is insufficient for assessing the state of a country plagued by top-down types of the former. We provide an analytical framework that distinguishes four levels of corruption and draws on the experience of the post-communist region. Using this framework to analyze the CPI’s survey questions, we explain why the index provides a blurred picture of the region. ‘Big data’ evidence for top-down corruption in Hungary is also presented, signifying the need for a more refined index.

“Hurdles” or “lubricants”: Petty corruption and Chinese migrants in Africa

“…Extensive grassroots corruption also exists in China, only less blatant and “street‐level” visible 89 . Plus, the categorizations of “high corruption” and “low corruption” societies under a unitary scale are unreliable 65,68 . Therefore, my findings based on interactions between China and Ghana cannot be generalized to the entire African continent or the Global South.…”

“…89 Plus, the categorizations of "high corruption" and "low corruption" societies under a unitary scale are unreliable. 65,68 Therefore, my findings based on interactions between China and Ghana cannot be generalized to the entire African continent or the Global South. Furthermore, it is important to note that developed countries widely regarded as "low corruption" are not immune to corruption, including petty corruption.…”

“…67 Therefore, the CPI score tells us little about the locals' actual experience and understanding of corruption. 68 For example, China and Ghana tied for the 80th ranking (with a CPI score of 41) in Ref. [Transparency International.…”

“…In addition, the CPI tends to systematically overestimate the extent of corruption in sub‐Saharan Africa, which contributes to the reproduction of a premodern, patrimonial, and irrational image of the African continent 67 . Therefore, the CPI score tells us little about the locals' actual experience and understanding of corruption 68 . For example, China and Ghana tied for the 80th ranking (with a CPI score of 41) in Ref.…”