From Water Source to Tap of Ceramic Filters—Factors That Influence Water Quality Between Collection and Consumption in Rural Households in Nepal

Abstract

The study assessed changes in water quality between the water source and the tap of locally produced low cost ceramic water filters used by a community living in hygienically critical conditions in a remote mountainous area in Western Nepal. Data was collected from 42 rural households during two visits. The effectiveness of filter handling on its performance was assessed through microbiological analysis, structured household interviews and structured observations. Water quality decreased significantly when source water was filled into transport containers, while the use of the filters improved drinking water quality for about 40% of the households. Highly inadequate filter cleaning practices involving the use of contaminated raw water, hands (geo mean = 110 E. coli CFU/100 mL) and cleaning tools (geo mean = 80 E. coli CFU/100 mL) stained hygienic parts of the filter. The use of boiling water to disinfect the filters was significantly correlated with improved filter performance and should be further promoted. However, even disinfected filters achieved a very low average LRV for E. coli of 0.4 in the field and performed worse than during laboratory tests (LRV for E. coli of 1.5–2). Comprehensive training on adequate filter handling, as well as better filter products, are required to improve the impact of filter use.

Assessing Drinking Water Quality at the Point of Collection and within Household Storage Containers in the Hilly Rural Areas of Mid and Far-Western Nepal

“…E. coli concentration data were exponentially distributed, so these variables were log 10 transformed, with all zero values being replaced by 0.5 prior to transformation. This approach is commonly used in environmental microbiology studies when analysing and reportings both mean and standard deviation; see for example [4,20,21]. However, since the transformed data did not meet the assumptions of parametric testing methods, i.e., assumptions of normality or linearity, we used non-parametric testing equivalents for the water quality-related analyses; see for example another study that used non-parametric tests for log transformed data [22].…”

“…This finding might be due to ineffective or incorrect HWT practices, which may be the result of ineffective HWT promotion; 59% of the respondents had participated in HWT promotional activities, but among these households, only one in four actually practice HWT, and those practices largely did not improve the water quality. Meierhofer et al [4], who conducted a study in the same region, found that the deterioration of water quality after treatment was due to inadequate ceramic filter handling and use. Studies have found that correct and consistent use of HWT can reduce the risk of water-related diseases, such as diarrhea [32,33].…”

“…Despite remarkable progress in extending access to improved water sources over the past decades, an estimated 2.2 billion people still rely on sources contaminated with fecal bacteria, the vast majority of whom live in rural areas of low-and middle-income countries (LMICs) [2]. Many rural households must fetch their daily water away from the home, presenting a further opportunity for recontamination during transport, storage and handling [3][4][5][6].…”

Nutrition, Water quality, Sanitation and Hygiene Practices Associated with Children’s Health Status in Nepal. A Cross-sectional Study on Intestinal Parasitic Infections, Diarrhoea and Undernutrition

“…All water samples were stored inside cooler bags and analysed at the field site using the membrane filtration technique: 100 ml water samples were passed through sterile 0.45 µm millipore cellulose membrane filters with sterilized filtration equipment. The filter pads were plated on Nissui Compact Dry Coli-scan plates and incubated for 24 hours at 35 +/-2°C [15]. A solar-powered electrical system was set up to run a low-power incubator at the field site.…”

“…Additionally, we observed that animals were often kept in or near the home and brought indoors overnight. Such practices have been shown to increase exposure to faecal contamination in the household environment in other rural settings [15]. Other studies conducted in India and Bangladesh highlighted the importance of faecal contamination of animal origin in the domestic environment, including source and stored drinking water, hands, and soil [43,44].…”