Further Specifying the Cognitive Model of Depression: Situational Expectations and Global Cognitions as Predictors of Depressive Symptoms

Abstract

The cognitive model of depression assumes that depressive symptoms are influenced by dysfunctional cognitions. To further specify this model, the present study aimed to examine the influence of different types of cognitions on depressive symptoms, i.e., situational expectations and global cognitions. It was hypothesized that situational expectations predict depressive symptoms beyond global cognitions. The present study examined a clinical (N = 91) and a healthy sample (N = 80) using longitudinal data with a baseline assessment and a follow-up five months later. Although the study was not designed as an interventional trial, participants from the clinical study received non-manualized cognitive-behavioral treatment after the baseline assessment. We examined situational expectations, intermediate beliefs, dispositional optimism, and generalized expectancies for negative mood regulation as predictors of depressive symptoms. Hypotheses were tested using multiple hierarchical linear regression analyses. Results indicate that, although there were significant correlations between the cognitive factors and depressive symptoms, in both samples neither global cognitions, nor situational expectations significantly predicted depressive symptoms at the five-month follow-up. The present study could, contrary to the hypotheses, not provide evidence for a significant impact of cognitive vulnerabilities on depressive symptoms, presumably due to high drop-out rates at follow-up. Limitations of the study and directions for future research are critically discussed. Situational and global cognitions were examined as predictors of depressive symptoms. In a healthy and a clinical sample, cognitive factors were correlated with depressive symptoms. However, in both samples depressive symptoms at follow-up were not predicted by cognitive factors. Situational and global cognitions were examined as predictors of depressive symptoms. In a healthy and a clinical sample, cognitive factors were correlated with depressive symptoms. However, in both samples depressive symptoms at follow-up were not predicted by cognitive factors.

Change in Interpersonal and Metacognitive Skills During Treatment With Cognitive Behavioral Analysis System of Psychotherapy and Metacognitive Therapy: Results From an Observational Study

“…Numerous factors that contribute to the etiology and maintenance of depression have been suggested (7), e.g., dysfunctional expectations (8,9). Moreover, these factors include skills deficits targeted by "third wave" behavioral therapies that are associated with depression but not captured by the existing diagnostic criteria.…”

Differential associations of positive and negative expectations with depressive symptoms

“…In previous studies, the DES total score has shown excellent internal consistency as indicated by Cronbach's α (Kube et al, 2017, 2018, 2019). In the present sample, the internal consistency for the entire 25‐item DES was Cronbach's α = 0.86 at both T1 and T2.…”

Assessing Dysfunctional Expectations in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Development and Validation of the Posttraumatic Expectations Scale (PTES)

“…and the intense emotions related to the trauma (e.g., "When I experience unpleasant emotions such as fear or guilt, I will feel helpless coping with these emotions."). Because studies showed that such disorder-specific expectations contribute incrementally to the development of depressive symptoms beyond other types of cognitions (Kube et al, 2019;Kube et al, 2018), we believe that it might be valuable to examine them in PTSD as well. Besides disorder-specific expectations, it might also be worthwhile to consider patients' treatment expectations (e.g., "If I confront myself with the traumatic event during therapy, I will feel much better in the longer run.…”

“…When aiming to assess relevant types of expectations in PTSD, one may consider symptom-specific expectations referring to the memory of the traumatic event (e.g., “When I am reminded of the traumatic event, I will feel like being at the mercy of these memories.”) and the intense emotions related to the trauma (e.g., “When I experience unpleasant emotions such as fear or guilt, I will feel helpless coping with these emotions.”). Because studies showed that such disorder-specific expectations contribute incrementally to the development of depressive symptoms beyond other types of cognitions (Kube et al, 2019; Kube et al, 2018), we believe that it might be valuable to examine them in PTSD as well. Besides disorder-specific expectations, it might also be worthwhile to consider patients’ treatment expectations (e.g., “If I confront myself with the traumatic event during therapy, I will feel much better in the longer run.”), as studies showed that such outcome expectations predict treatment response for combat veterans suffering from PTSD (Price et al, 2015).…”