Gallium, Indium, and Thallium

Abstract

The chemical elements gallium, indium, and thallium belong to group IIIA in the periodic table. Unlike other metals, such as lead and arsenic, which have been featured prominently in toxicological folklore since antiquity, these are relative newcomers, discovered from 1861 to 1876. Since then, thallium has developed a well‐deserved reputation for its toxic properties and is recognized as a potent accidental, occupational, and environmental poison, with incidence in cases of homicide and suicide. Although gallium and indium are not as toxic as thallium, their production and industrial use represent an important source of exposure, particularly in the increasing manufacture of semiconductor electronic devices. Gallium compounds particularly produce pulmonary toxicity. Indium compounds induce pulmonary toxicity and also nephrotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, and developmental toxicity, whereas thallium compounds act as general poisons. Some compounds are also capable of altering various cellular defense mechanisms involved in carcinogenesis. However, many aspects of the toxicity of individual compounds in human beings, including toxicokinetics, mechanisms of action, teratogenic potential, and the best treatment, remain to be elucidated.

Fluorescence probes for prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells using Re(CO)3+complexes with an electron withdrawing ancillary ligand

“…As observed in Figures 7 and 8, it was possible to stain yeasts with either C3 or C4. [98][99][100][101][102][103] In general, both tested compounds were able to stain cells showing a punctuated distribution in the cytoplasm, whereas nuclear membrane seems to be impermeable to our compounds, (shown in Figure 10) by no colocalization with a specific nuclear label (Hoescht dye). These results suggest that these Rhenium(I) tricarbonyl compounds could be used to discriminate distinct cell types (see Figure S20 in the ESI †).…”

Evaluation of cytogenetic and DNA damage caused by thallium(I) acetate in human blood cells

“…In several biological systems, thallium(I) and thallium(III) compounds interfere with an important spectrum of enzymes that are dependent on metallic ions (Repetto and del Peso, 2012;Rodr ıguez-Mercado and Altamirano-Lozano, 2013). Thallium(I) competes with and replaces potassium, thereby modifying the activation of Na 1 /K 1 ATPases (Grisham et al, 1974), aldehyde dehydrogenase (Douglas et al, 1990), pyruvate kinase (Kayne, 1971), and fructose-1-6-bisphosphatase (Villeret et al, 1995).…”

“…Thallium compounds have been used in various technological and industrial applications as bactericides (Morton and Lecce, 1953), for pharmaceutical products designed to remove facial hair and treat fungal scalp infections, and as poisons and catalysts (Lewis and Lloyd, 1933;Soria et al, 1995;Repetto and del Peso, 2012). However, this compound is highly dangerous, and in humans exposure to a single 3.4 mg/kg dose results in adverse health effects; indeed, a dose as low as 6 mg/kg can be lethal (Soria et al, 1995;Repetto and del Peso, 2012).…”

“…Because of the physicochemical properties and similarities to other metal cations, thallium(I) is rapidly absorbed, readily crosses biological membranes, and competes with essential elements, such as sodium and potassium. In mammals, thallium accumulates in tissues, where it is retained for long periods of time, and in target organs, such as the kidney, liver, brain, testis, muscle, heart, bone, and scalp; thallium is distributed in a time-and dosedependent manner (Repetto and del Peso, 2012;Rodr ıguez-Mercado and Altamirano-Lozano, 2013). Thallium is normally found in blood (<1.1 mg/L) (Hamilton et al, 1994;White and Sabbioni, 1998) and urine (<0.02-0.4 mg/L) (Schaller et al, 1980;Brockhaus et al, 1981;Sabbioni et al, 1994).…”

Evaluation of the antitumor effects of gallium trichloride and doxorubicin in cancer treatment

“…Over the past two to three decades, gallium compounds have gained importance in the fields of medicine and electronics [7] . Gallium, a metal from group 13 (IIIa) of the periodic table, has been reported to be active against various tumor cells, both in vitro and in vivo [8][9][10] . In clinical medicine, radioactive gallium and stable gallium nitrate are used as diagnostic and therapeutic agents in cancer treatment.…”