Gender and Age Differences in Loneliness: Evidence for People without and with Disabilities

Abstract

This study examines the relationships between loneliness, gender, and age for people without and with disabilities (moderate versus severe) in Germany. Using data taken from the German Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP) for the years 2013 and 2017 and using the UCLA (University of California, Los Angeles) Loneliness Scale, in general we found that males report lower loneliness scores as compared to those for females. Furthermore, we found a strong association between loneliness and the individual’s age, but with differences according to gender and disability status. For example, for males with severe disabilities levels of loneliness decrease with age, whereas for females with severe disabilities the opposite result is found. In addition, we found that participation in leisure activities and having a higher frequency of contacts with family, friends, and social online networks (measured by the relational time index) contribute to reducing loneliness for all individuals. From a public policy perspective, it is necessary to undertake the design, promotion, and implementation of instrumental, emotional, and social support measures for people with disabilities (in particular for females that are severely limited in their daily activities), which can contribute to reducing their loneliness scores and increasing their levels of life satisfaction.

Does unemployment lead to greater levels of loneliness? A systematic review

“…Conversely, only one study identified positive linear regression coefficients ( Luhmann and Hawkley, 2016 ). For both positive and negative linear regression coefficients the magnitude of the relationship between loneliness and paid work was greater in full-time than part-time employment ( Luhmann and Hawkley, 2016 ; Pagan, 2020 ). Five linear regressions presented negative coefficients but did not achieve statistical significance, which was also the case in causal analysis ( Buecker et al, 2020 ).…”

“…The remaining studies (10/34) reported descriptive statistics or correlations for this relationship and used regression for analysis elsewhere. Of the longitudinal studies included, two did not seek to understand directionality ( Kalil et al, 2010 ; Pagan, 2020 ), three considered the causal impact of employment status on loneliness ( Bu et al, 2020a ; Buecker et al, 2020 ; von Soest et al, 2018 ) and two the reverse of loneliness on employment outcomes ( Morris, 2019 ; von Soest et al, 2020 ). Further details of study characteristics, data collection and analysis ordered by date of publication can be found in Table 3 .…”

“…school, housekeeping I Locally weighted scatterplot smoothing curve, moderated regression models, multiple regression model (moderated regression models, multiple regression model) b Hoffart et al (2020) Evaluate the risk and resilience factors for loneliness in non-pharmacological interventions implemented during COVID-19 and associations between loneliness and psychopathology symptoms 10,061 Range: 18–86 Mean: 36.0 SD: 13.5 21.7% male Norway Survey of general adult Norwegian population, 2020 Cross-sectional UCLA Loneliness Scale-8 (ULS-8) D Survey data. Response categories: not stated I Hierarchical linear regression, multiple regression (hierarchical linear regression) Pagan (2020) To examine the relationships between loneliness, gender, and age for people without and with disabilities 42,569 16+ 46.4% male Germany German Socio-Economic Panel Study (SOEP) - 2013 and 2017 waves Longitudinal 3-item UCLA Loneliness Scale D Survey data. Response categories: full-time, part-time, non-working I Descriptive statistics, locally weighted scatterplot smoothing and kernal-weighted local polynomial regression functions, ordinary least squares model (descriptive statistics, ordinary least squares model) NR = not reported.…”

“…Finally, Buecker noted that trajectories after transition into paid employment, reemployment, and after job loss differ depending on age; with a less pronounced increase in loneliness following an employment related event in older than average individuals. Two studies considered differences across gender though found no significant effect on the relationship between loneliness and employment status ( von Soest et al, 2018 ) and little difference in regression coefficients for male and female subsamples ( Pagan, 2020 ).…”

“…No significant difference in social loneliness. Pagan (2020) Male: full-time 0.552, part-time 0.040. Female: full-time 0.251; part-time 0.244 Male: 0.407.…”