Gender and Security: Empress Cixi's Contribution in China's Reform (1861-1908)

Abstract

Research on gender and ancient female leadership, like that of Empress Dowager Cixi (1861–1908), is lacking in English and Malay. Most research only discussed Cixi’s general narrative. The majority of studies merely covered Cixi’s overarching story. Cixi was one of the women leaders who defied the patriarchal status quo to rule. Nevertheless, her contribution was overlooked due to the controversy surrounding her, which tarnished her reputation. Thus, through library research and content analysis methods, this article discusses Cixi’s contribution to the Qing dynasty while filling in the research gap of international relations scholarship by overlooking Cixi’s contributions, which fall under the scope of the missing women figures under the gender and international relation scholarship. The study shows that Cixi’s contribution could be traced through the reformation of political sectors, such as the development of modern military and defense sectors, economic sectors, and social sectors, such as women’s empowerment. Cixi successfully defied the gender barrier to become a leader; however, her contribution has been overlooked. It is time for her leadership to be recognised.