Gender Atypical Behavior in Chinese School-Aged Children: Its Prevalence and Relation to Sex, Age, and Only Child Status

Abstract

This study had three purposes: (a) to compare the prevalence of boys' and girls' gender-atypical behaviors (GABs) in a sample of Chinese school-aged children, (b) to examine the developmental pattern of GABs in Chinese boys and girls over the age range in question (6-12 years), and (c) to test the effects of being an only child on children's GAB expression. Parents of 486 boys and 417 girls completed a Child Play Behavior and Activity Questionnaire (CPBAQ) in regard to their own children, and a demographic information sheet. The frequency distribution for each gender-related behavior was calculated. The associations between sex, age, and only-child status, and CPBAQ scale scores were examined. Although most GABs (by their very nature) were exhibited infrequently in Chinese children, it was found that girls displayed GABs more frequently than boys did. The prevalence of GABs rose for girls as they grew older, but fell slightly for boys. The expressions of GABs in only children did not differ from that in children with siblings. Possible effects of Chinese culture (including the current only-child policy) on children's GABs are discussed.

Gender nonconformity, peer victimization, and internalizing problems among youth: Differential moderating effects of school climate by sex assigned at birth.

“…More than one third of the gender-nonconforming youth (38.5%) reported frequent exposure to peer victimization, which was significantly more prevalent than that of their gender-conforming counterparts (17.9%). This disparity could reflect a strong endorsement of binary gender norms in Chinese educational settings, which aligns masculinity with AMAB youth and femininity with AFAB youth (Yu & Winter, 2011). Performing gender-nonconforming behavior may serve as a challenge to normative gender roles and thus provoke victimization by peers in school.…”

“…However, students whose gender expression does not align with normative gender expectations often experience more challenges within the classroom and beyond in China (Kwok & Wu, 2015). This can be attributed to the strong emphasis on collectivism and conformity to social norms in Chinese societies, and thus behaviors perceived as incongruent with normative social expectations are likely to be disapproved (Yu & Winter, 2011). Most importantly, Confucianism posits the family as the basic unit of society, and the preservation of family honor is considered of the utmost importance in Chinese culture (Chen & Chung, 1994).…”

Association between a marker for prenatal testosterone exposure and externalizing behavior problems in children

“…First, it is conceivable that the one-child policy in China where parents tend to prefer to have a son than a daughter encourages more masculine qualities in girls. A recent study of urban Chinese children found that girls exhibit more masculinized behaviors, whereas boys tended to exhibit more feminine behaviors (Yu & Winter, 2011). Second, teachers can more easily compare the behavior of girls with boys in the classroom and witness lower levels of aggression in girls, whereas caregivers in the home with their one (female) child have more limited availability to directly draw these gender differences.…”

“As Good as a Boy” But Still a Girl: Gender Equity Within the Context of China’s One-Child Policy

“…Following that, and notwithstanding the fact that the policy’s implementation has been successful, it is also important to point out that Chinese society is far from being culturally attuned to, or institutionally prepared for, a potentially sonless reality. The preference for sons is far from being eradicated (Wang, 2005), and gender stereotypes persist—albeit in a less drastic sense—even when there is only one child in the family (Liu, 2006; Yu & Winter, 2011). Son preference is on the decline mainly for pragmatic reasons rather than radical transformations of the mind (see Ling, 2017), and the non-discriminatory treatment of girls witnessed in China reflects the sonless condition of some families rather than society embracing the concept of investing equally in daughters (Hu & Shi, 2020; Yi, 2007).…”

“…Son preference is on the decline mainly for pragmatic reasons rather than radical transformations of the mind (see Ling, 2017), and the non-discriminatory treatment of girls witnessed in China reflects the sonless condition of some families rather than society embracing the concept of investing equally in daughters (Hu & Shi, 2020; Yi, 2007). In some cases, the preference for boys may in fact be highlighted and strengthened by the policy since parents only have one chance to have a child (Yu & Winter, 2011). On the one hand, such a situation can be a manifestation of a “cultural lagging” (Ogburn, 1957) phenomenon in the sense that an individual’s deep-rooted values may not catch up with the transformation of society in the real world.…”