Gender Differences in Hemodynamic Regulation and Cardiovascular Adaptations to Dynamic Exercise

Abstract

Exercise is a major challenge for cardiovascular apparatus since it recruits chronotropic, inotropic, pre-load, and afterload reserves. Regular physical training induces several physiological adaptations leading to an increase in both cardiac volume and mass. It appears that several genderrelated physiological and morphological differences exist in the cardiovascular adjustments and adaptations to dynamic exercise in humans. In this respect, gender may be important in determining these adjustments and adaptations to dynamic exercise due to genetic, endocrine, and body composition differences between sexes. Females seem to have a reduced vasoconstriction and a lower vascular resistance in comparison to males, especially after exercise. Significant differences exist also in the cardiovascular adaptations to physical training, with trained women showing smaller cardiac volume and wall thickness compared with male athletes. In this review, we summarize these differences.

Sex Influence on Cardiovascular Autonomic Modulation and on Cardiac and Renal Oxidative Stress: Effects of Aerobic Exercise Training

“…Moreover, studies have shown that dynamic aerobic exercise training does not change arterial blood pressure in male [32] and female [19] normotensive rats. Indeed, in the present study, the AP values obtained did not change after aerobic exercise training in both sexes; however, the female animals showed lower vascular sympathetic modulation than males, which may explain a reduced vasoconstriction and a lower vascular resistance in females in comparison to males, especially after exercise [33]. Interesting, we observed a positive correlation between LF band of SAP and SAP, showing that, despite similar basal values of AP between sexes and condition of training, animals with lower sympathetic vascular modulation presented reduced values of SAP.…”

Patterns of endogenous and exogenous ovarian hormone modulation on recovery metrics across the menstrual cycle

“… 11–13 19 24 To our knowledge, existing research and its application to female athletes has been generalised from male data, despite limited research indicating significant sex differences and responses of HRV and the ANS. 5 12 13 This generalisation is a significant misstep for female athletes as the neural control of circulation differs with sex, mainly attributed to the effects of ovarian hormones on ANS. 8 16 23 25 26 Moreover, endogenous and exogenous hormones exert different modulatory effects; specific to the progestogen of the exogenous hormone formulation.…”

“…Throughout each phase, fluctuations in hormones trigger not only changes in the reproductive system, but also in all the tissues of the body, 1 modulating sleep, 2 3 circadian rhythms 4 and the autonomic nervous system (ANS). [5][6][7] For instance, there is evidence of a…”

“…Throughout each phase, fluctuations in hormones trigger not only changes in the reproductive system, but also in all the tissues of the body, 1 modulating sleep, 2 3 circadian rhythms 4 and the autonomic nervous system (ANS). 5–7 For instance, there is evidence of a decrease of the vagal dominance on the heart from the follicular to the luteal phase. 6–8 Moreover, baroreflex sensitivity (BRS) is higher in the luteal phase of the cycle, presumably due to the elevation of progesterone and its stimulation of the phrenic nerve and overall sympathetic drive.…”

Muscle Oxygen Delivery in the Forearm and in the Vastus Lateralis Muscles in Response to Resistance Exercise: A Comparison Between Nepalese Porters and Italian Trekkers

“…In addition, even though our model did not allow the three-way statistical analysis, from Figure 3 it can be observed a difference between ethnic groups: Nepalese porters may have required a higher blood flow increment after exercise in altitude, both in the forearm and in the thigh muscle. The marked hemodynamic response to submaximal dynamic exercise, as found in the present study, might be further characterized in terms of hemodynamic reserves (Bassareo and Crisafulli, 2020): hypoxia has a role in muscle metaboreflex (Mulliri et al, 2019), and the dynamics of diverse muscle groups can be stressed to achieve further insight. This response might be the result of systemic advantage, achieved by heritable factors or due to long-term adaptation, representing a likely basis for a further adaptation in exercised muscles.…”