Gender differences in personality: A meta-analysis.

Abstract

Four meta-analyses were conducted to examine gender differences in personality in the literature (1958-1992) and in normative data for well-known personality inventories (1940-1992). Males were found to be more assertive and had slightly higher self-esteem than females. Females were higher than males in extraversion, anxiety, trust, and, especially, tender-mindedness (e.g., nurturance). There were no noteworthy sex differences in social anxiety, impulsiveness, activity, ideas (e.g., reflectiveness), locus of control, and orderliness. Gender differences in personality traits were generally constant across ages, years of data collection, educational levels, and nations.

Gender differences in Five Factor Model personality traits in an elderly cohort

“…Agreeableness findings are also consistent with well-replicated results from earlier life phases (Costa et al, 2001;Feingold, 1994). Both evolutionary and social role theory explanations have been proffered for the consistent finding that women tend to be more nurturing.…”

“…Earlier work on trait gender differences used almost exclusively young adults (cf. Feingold, 1994), and findings of observer-rated trait gender differences both in the U.S. and other cultures used college-age targets for these ratings .…”

“…Feingold, 1994). However, Costa et al (2001) investigated gender differences across specific aspects of these broad FFM domains, finding that men scored higher in some facets of Openness, such as Openness to Ideas, while women scored higher in others such as Openness to Aesthetics and Feelings.…”

Temporal Discounting of Hypothetical Monetary Rewards by Adolescents, Adults, and Older Adults

“…This disparity may have had some influence on the outcome. A large metaanalysis, however, has indicated that there is little difference in impulsivity between males and females, with a median effect size of 0.03 (Feingold, 1994). Consistent with previous studies of temporal discounting, it was necessary to disregard some data due to inappropriate responding.…”

Do the same risk and protective factors influence aggression toward partners and same‐sex others?

“…Primary psychopathy is regarded as being linked to an underactive BIS system, which is characterized by regulating behavior such as anxiety, higher levels of which are usually found for women than men (e.g., Feingold, 1994;Kessler et al, 1994;Lewinsohn, Gotlib, Lewinsohn, Seeley, & Allen, 1998). …”