Gender differences in personality: Biological and/or psychological?

Abstract

The results of three empirical studies are reported in which the hypothesis is tested that diferences in personality variables between the morphophenotype sexes can be explained by psychological sex-role orientation variables. Furthermore, it was expected that normative sex-role orientations (measured with the SRO-Sand the A WS-S Scales) and gender-related self-concepts (femininity, masculinity, and androgyny measured with a modijied BSRI) explain more variance in personality variables than morphophenotype sex. Besides these sex-role orientation variables, test and questionnaire data on verbal fluency, spatial reasoning, self-concept, anxiety, and aggressiveness were obtained in Study I from 50 young adults and their same-sex parents; in Study 11, data on verbal fluency, spatial reasoning, self-concept, anxiety, and neuroticism were obtained from 120 university students; and in Study 111, data on anxiety, locus of control, and Machiavellianism were obtained from 226 university students. The results confirm both hypotheses for the two aspects of intelligence studied, domain-specijic self-concepts, diferent aspects of anxiety and aggressiveness, neuroticism, powerful others'externality in locus of control, and Machiavellianism. For all these personality variables the efect sizes of the psychological gender variables were larger than those of morphophenotype sex and reached medium to large values.

Peer Review #1 of "Relationship between the Dark Triad and depressive symptoms (v0.1)"

“…First, the gender differences observed for the total scores and sub-dimensions of DT traits provide partial support for Hypothesis 1. The results for psychopathy and Machiavellianism traits are in line with those found in the previous literature (Muris et al, 2017;Jonason & Davis, 2018;Cale & Lilienfeld, 2002;Krampen et al, 1990). The higher psychopathy scores found in men in comparison with women are compatible with scientific evidence showing that in general men present more antisocial behaviours due to social or genetic factors (Cale & Lilienfeld, 2002;Book, Starzyk, & Quinsey 2001;Reidy, Shirk, Sloan, & Zeichner, 2009).…”

“…Firstly, in relation to psychopathy, both in clinical and community samples, this trait has shown to be much stronger in men than in women (e.g., Cale & Lilienfeld, 2002, Nicholls, Ogloff, Brink, & Spidel, 2005. Secondly, although there are few studies analysing the relationship between Machiavellianism and gender, these have also shown higher scores for men than women (e.g., Krampen, Effertz, Jostock, & Müller, 1990). Finally, through a meta-analysis in which 355 studies were included, Grijalva et al (2015) found that men scored higher than women on narcissism.…”

Empirical Test of an Integrative Model Explaining Higher Prevalence of Subclinical Depression in Women: A Normative Sex‐Role Orientation Approach

“…Brown et al., 1986; Hammen, 1991; Hammen et al., 1986) and negatively linked to internal locus of control, while women are more frequently affected by negative life events than men (see also Dalgard et al., 2006; Marcotte et al., 2002; McIntosh, Keywell, Reifman, & Ellsworth, 1994). Internal locus of control is negatively connected to depression (in accordance with Bandura, 1986; Krampen, 1991 and Seligman, 1975), and women have lower internal loci of control than men (see also Krampen, 1991; Krampen et al., 1990 and Nolen‐Hoeksema et al., 1999). Above that, traditional normative SRO has a negative impact on internal locus of control in women but not in men.…”

“…However, the effect sizes of gender differences are too small to substantially account for gender differences in depression. Interestingly, gender role identity (masculinity, femininity, androgyny) and normative sex‐role orientation (SRO) explain more variance in control and competence beliefs than gender (Krampen, 1991; Krampen, Effertz, Jostock, & Müller, 1990).…”

Gender, Education and Post-traumatic Reactions of Victims of Cattle Rustling in Zamfara State, Nigeria

“…A lot of psychological theories have provided explanation to what constitute gender differences. The psychology literature is filled with consistent empirical findings indicating sex differences between male and female's personality (Krampen, Effertz, Jostock & Muller;1990). For instance, many empirical findings reported that girls or women show higher score in trait anxiety than boys and men which could give a signal on their reaction to traumatic events.…”