Gender Differences in Self-Concept and Psychological Well-Being in Old Age: A Meta-Analysis

Abstract

Because of women's higher risk of being widowed, having health problems, and needing care, one might expect them to have a more negative self-concept and lower subjective well-being (SWB). However, women may also have greater access to sources of SWB (e.g., relations to adult children) and may engage in processes to protect the self (e.g., lowered aspirations). Meta-analysis was used to synthesize findings from 300 empirical studies on gender differences in life satisfaction, happiness, self-esteem, loneliness, subjective health, and subjective age in late adulthood. Older women reported significantly lower SWB and less positive self-concept than men on all measures, except subjective age, although gender accounted for less than 1% of the variance in well-being and self-concept. Smaller gender differences in SWB were found in younger than in older groups. Statistically controlling for gender differences in widowhood, health, and socioeconomic status decreased gender differences in SWB. Cohort differences in SWB are reported as well.

Psychometric analysis of the short-form UCLA Loneliness Scale (ULS-6) in older adults

“…Future investigation is needed to clarify these findings and to examine the possible explanation that older adults with secondary education have broader social networks. In any event, past research has demonstrated a stronger relation between income and loneliness than between education and loneliness (Pinquart and Sörensen 2001). Divorced or widowed individuals and never married persons reported higher loneliness than married participants in the present investigation.…”

“…Loneliness is a serious problem among older persons, in particular due to widowhood, poor health, low social contact and institutionalisation (Andersson 1985;Pinquart and Sörensen 2001;Savikko et al 2005;Theeke 2009). A comparative study conducted in 12 countries among older persons aged 65 and over showed that loneliness varied by country ranging from 25 % in Denmark to 60 % in Greece, with higher prevalence in the Mediterranean countries than in Northern Europe (Sundström et al 2009).…”

Coresidence with a child and happiness among older widows in Europe: Does gender of the child matter?

“…Women appear to have slightly worse subjective well‐being than men (and a higher prevalence of depression), even after controlling for gender differences in widowhood, health, and socioeconomic status (Pinquart & Sorenson, 2001). Associations with age are less clear and may vary by region.…”

Predictors of Independent Living Outcomes Among Older Women Receiving Informal Care

“…Women experience five major gender-associated disadvantages, which are important predictors of health outcomes. The following were identified as gender disadvantages by): (a) women generally require more care in later life than men and have a greater need for health resources, (b) women have a higher rate of widowhood, (c) older women have lower material resources generally caused by gender inequality in employment compensation and pensions (d) women have a greater likelihood of selfdisclosing negative feelings and (e) women are less valued by society as they age, while men may gain social prestige as they get older (Pinquart & Sorensen, 2001). …”

“…Older women are three times more like than older men to be living alone or widowed and women are also twice as likely to reside in a nursing home (ElderIssues, 2011). Reports show that older women have more feelings of loneliness than men, with the risk of loneliness higher among women who are widowed or live alone (Pinquart & Sorensen, 2001). Loneliness significantly contributes to the prediction of chronic conditions and perceived health among adults age 69 and older (Bailis & Chipperfield, 2002).…”