Gender equality and human rights approaches to female genital mutilation: a review of international human rights norms and standards

Abstract

Two hundred million girls and women in the world are estimated to have undergone female genital mutilation (FGM), and another 15 million girls are at risk of experiencing it by 2020 in high prevalence countries (UNICEF, 2016. Female genital mutilation/cutting: a global concern. 2016). Despite decades of concerted efforts to eradicate or abandon the practice, and the increased need for clear guidance on the treatment and care of women who have undergone FGM, present efforts have not yet been able to effectively curb the number of women and girls subjected to this practice (UNICEF. Female genital mutilation/cutting: a statistical overview and exploration of the dynamics of change. 2013), nor are they sufficient to respond to health needs of millions of women and girls living with FGM. International efforts to address FGM have thus far focused primarily on preventing the practice, with less attention to treating associated health complications, caring for survivors, and engaging health care providers as key stakeholders. Recognizing this imperative, WHO developed guidelines on management of health complications of FGM. In this paper, based on foundational research for the development of WHO’s guidelines, we situate the practice of FGM as a rights violation in the context of international and national policy and efforts, and explore the role of health providers in upholding health-related human rights of women at girls who are survivors, or who are at risk. Findings are based on a literature review of relevant international human rights treaties and UN Treaty Monitoring Bodies.

Female Genital Mutilation: Health Consequences and Complications—A Short Literature Review

“…The complexity of FGM in its relation to urban and immigrant health is comprised of a combination of concerns that center on gender equality, religious freedom, cultural traditions, and societal norms [ 19 ]. Therefore, maintaining this tradition remains of utmost importance to many individuals whose region once practiced it.…”

“…Therefore, maintaining this tradition remains of utmost importance to many individuals whose region once practiced it. These issues form a dynamic that thrives within immigrant communities that make it increasingly difficult to eradicate the procedure [ 19 ].…”

Exploring the capacity of the Somaliland healthcare system to manage female genital mutilation / cutting-related complications and prevent the medicalization of the practice: a cross-sectional study

“…In high-income countries, especially those with immigrant communities from high FGM/C-prevalent countries, health systems' challenges in addressing the needs of those affected are widely reported [34]. Examples include limited staff knowledge around the concept, typology, and prevalence of FGM/C and the protocols for remedial action [33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41]. Similar FGM/C healthcare capacity limitations have been found in low-income settings.…”

“…In 2016 the WHO disseminated guidelines for healthcare workers, managers and policymakers on caring for FGM/C-affected girls and women, service planning, and developing and implementing national and local healthcare protocols and policies [31]. However, while such efforts to address the practice have focused on prevention, less attention has been devoted to treating health complications, building the capacity of healthcare workers to provide optimal care, and engaging care providers as potential agents of behavioural change [32,33].…”

Effectiveness of health education as an intervention designed to prevent female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C): a systematic review

“…The global prevalence of FGM/C among girls and women is estimated to be over 200 million. It is concentrated particularly in some African, Asian and Middle Eastern countries [ 1 – 3 ]. However, migration has been associated with the wide spread of FGM/C around the globe [ 4 ].…”