Gender ratios for reading difficulties

Abstract

The prevalence of reading difficulties is typically higher in males than females in both referred and research-identified samples, and the ratio of males to females is greater in more affected samples. To explore possible gender differences in reading performance, we analyzed data from 1,133 twin pairs in which at least one member of each pair had a school-history of reading problems and from 684 twin pairs from a comparison sample with no reading difficulties. Although the difference between the average scores of males and females in these two samples was very small, the variance of reading performance was significantly greater for males in both groups. We suggest that a greater variance of reading performance measures in males may account at least in part for their higher prevalence of reading difficulties as well as for the higher gender ratios that are observed in more severely impaired samples. KeywordsDyslexia; Gender Ratio; Prevalence; Reading Disability; VarianceThe ratio of males to females in samples of children with reading difficulties varies widely depending upon the method of ascertainment. In studies where subjects are ascertained employing clinical or referral methods, gender ratios range from 2:1 to 15:1 males to females (e.g., Finucci & Childs, 1981;Vogel, 1990); however, in research-identified samples, gender ratios are closer to 1:1 (e.g., Harlaar, Spinath, Dale, & Plomin, 2005;Hawke, Wadsworth, Olson, & DeFries, 2007;Shaywitz, Shaywitz, Fletcher, & Escobar, 1990;Stevenson, 1992). Nevertheless, in both referred and research-identified samples, greater numbers of males with reading problems have typically been reported. For example, in a recent review of sex differences in reading disability, Rutter et al. (2004) reported the gender ratios in four independent epidemiological studies in which the samples had been ascertained using research criteria. In all four of the studies, significantly more males than females with reading disabilities Correspondence to: Jesse L. Hawke. NIH Public Access Author ManuscriptDyslexia. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2010 August 1. NIH-PA Author ManuscriptNIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author Manuscript were reported. Moreover, gender ratios for reading difficulties are greater in more severely affected samples (Hawke et al., 2007;Olson, 2002).Several biological and environmental hypotheses have been proposed to account for this gender difference in prevalence rates including X-linked recessive inheritance (Symmes & Rapoport, 1972), differences in brain functioning due to differential exposure or sensitivity to androgens Nass, 1993;Tallal & Fitch, 1993), immunological factors, sexual imprinting, perinatal complications, and differential resilience to neural insult (Liederman, Kantrowitz, & Flannery, 2005). It has also been suggested that females may be less susceptible to environmental factors such as teaching methods and socioeconomic status , and that genetic influences may be more important as a cause of reading difficulties in females than in m...

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“…Hawke et al (2009) in conclusion rationalised that there could be wide variations in the ratio of males and females with reading difficulties. Quinn and Wagner (2013) in aligning with the observation of Hawke et al (2009) agreed that reading impairment is more prevalent in males than females. Quinn and Wagner (2013) also opined that the reasons for the difference are debatable.…”

“…Reading difficulties is more pronounced in males in comparison to males in referred individuals and research identified population, Hawke, Olson, Willcut, Wadsworth, and DeFries (2009). Hawke et al (2009) also reported that their study revealed that females with dyslexia had slightly better performance in reading than males. Hawke et al (2009) in conclusion rationalised that there could be wide variations in the ratio of males and females with reading difficulties.…”

“…Hawke et al (2009) also reported that their study revealed that females with dyslexia had slightly better performance in reading than males. Hawke et al (2009) in conclusion rationalised that there could be wide variations in the ratio of males and females with reading difficulties. Quinn and Wagner (2013) in aligning with the observation of Hawke et al (2009) agreed that reading impairment is more prevalent in males than females.…”

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“…In total, the sample included 44 males and 32 females. Since dyslexia is much more prevalent in males than in females (Hawke, Olson, Willcutt, Wadsworth, & Defries, 2009;Rutter et al, 2004) this was also reflected in the sample, albeit unintentionally so.…”

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“…Prevalence estimates of RD in the school-age population run around 7% to 10%, with approximately 1.5 boys to every girl where the ratio may be higher as with greater severity (Boyle et al, 2011;Goswami, 2006;Hawke, Olson, Willcut, Wadsworth, & DeFries, 2009;Shaywitz & Shaywitz, 2005;Willcutt & Pennington, 2000).…”