Gender-Related Ideological and Structural Macrosocial Factors Associated With Intimate Partner Violence Against European Women

Abstract

Intimate partner violence against women (IPVAW) is investigated mostly at the individual level, which ignores the role of macrosocial variables and possible interactions between them. We explored how two ideological gender-related macrosocial factors (traditional gender role beliefs and attitudes toward gender equality) and one structural gender-related macrosocial factor (the economic Gender Equality Index) are associated with physical, psychological, and sexual IPVAW in Europe. We examined their interactions with individual-level factors in predicting IPVAW. Secondary analysis ( N = 30,284 heterosexual women) of the 2015 European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights’ Violence Against Women survey revealed that 26.1% of women in Europe reported at least one act of physical, psychological, or sexual violence. Generalized linear mixed models analysis revealed that individual-level factors (women’s education, childhood victimization, equal say about income, partner’s alcohol consumption, and an aggressive partner) were associated with IPVAW. Adding the Eurobarometer of Gender Equality ( N = 28 countries) and the Gender Equality Index ( N = 28 countries), attitudes more favorable to gender equality were related to lower rates of psychological victimization; more traditional gender role beliefs predicted higher rates of sexual victimization. Ideological gender-related macrofactors played an important role in cross-level interactions with individual-level factors. To reduce the rates of IPVAW victimization, clinicians, educators, and policy makers need to focus on individual predictors and macrofactors to promote societal attitudes toward equality and change traditional gender role socialization. Additional online materials for this article are available on PWQ’s website at http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/suppl/10.1177/0361684319839367

Public Attitudes towards Intimate Partner Violence against Women and Influential Factors in China and Spain

“…As for gender equality attitudes, we found that people with more gender equitable attitudes presented more awareness, more proactive attitudes, less tolerance, as well as broader definition of serious violence behaviors. A similar relationship has been found between gender equality attitudes and prevalence of IPVAW in previous studies (e.g., Grabe et al, 2015;Heise & Kotsadam, 2015;Lasley & Durtschj, 2016;LeSuer, 2019;Zapata-Calvente et al, 2019). Stalans and Finn (2006) further uncovered that people who disfavor male-dominant relationships are more likely to believe that husbands' use of violence is intentional and unjustifiable.…”

Public Helping Reactions to Intimate Partner Violence against Women in European Countries: The Role of Gender-Related Individual and Macrosocial Factors

“…Third, results suggested that countries with higher gender equality (i.e., equality between women and men in quality of knowledge, work, money, power, health, and time) were more likely to provide formal help, but no effects on informal and negative helping reactions to IPVAW were found. Substantial empirical data support the notion that IPVAW prevalence [ 3 , 13 , 39 ], as well as the justification of IPVAW [ 46 , 75 ], is significantly rooted in a gender inequality or larger power distance societies [ 34 ], however to our knowledge, we provide the first support linking gender-related macrosocial structural gender equality and the formal reaction to IPVAW within the European context. This result is particularly important because it reflects that living in a society that promotes and, indeed, consolidates gender equality by means of different domains (e.g., economy, political representation, and health status) models people’s helping attitudes and behaviors, specifically, those officially promoted by the government [ 76 ].…”

“…1, p. 2). In particular, intimate partner violence against women (IPVAW), a specific form of VAW by her partner or ex-partner, is one of the most frequent and is the focus of a substantial body of theoretical and empirical research [ 2 , 3 , 4 ]. To be a victim of IPVAW has been linked to aggravating impact not only on her physical, sexual, financial, reproductive, and psychosocial health but also on suicide behavior and her children’s well-being [ 2 , 5 ].…”

“…Thus, within the ecological framework proposed by Heise [ 11 ], evidence have indicated that, beyond well-documented individual risk factors (e.g., age, marital status, and alcohol abuse) [ 12 ], gender-related macrosocial characteristics (i.e., ideological and structural) specific to gender inequality contexts—that is, societies where a power asymmetry between men and women is maintained—have been linked to physical, psychological, and/or sexual victimization by the current partner in the last 12 months [ 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 ]. Regarding ideological factors, for instance, higher IPVAW rates were found within countries that endorsed favored attitudes toward gender inequality, traditional gender roles, and the acceptability of IPVAW [ 3 , 13 , 17 ]. Likewise, according to structural indicators of women’s empowerment, societies where women held decreased life expectancy, literacy, economic resources, autonomy, and politic representation in comparison to men, showed higher prevailing IPVAW rates [ 3 , 18 , 19 ].…”

“…Regarding ideological factors, for instance, higher IPVAW rates were found within countries that endorsed favored attitudes toward gender inequality, traditional gender roles, and the acceptability of IPVAW [ 3 , 13 , 17 ]. Likewise, according to structural indicators of women’s empowerment, societies where women held decreased life expectancy, literacy, economic resources, autonomy, and politic representation in comparison to men, showed higher prevailing IPVAW rates [ 3 , 18 , 19 ]. Extending the role of macrosocial factors toward helping reactions to IPVAW, we suggest that, in contexts where there is a tolerant or normalized climate toward IPVAW, the general population is less likely to report or react against such incidents [ 17 , 19 , 20 , 21 ].…”