Gender, Resources across the Life Course, and Cognitive Functioning in Egypt

Abstract

referential investments in the human resources of boys have been common to many resource-poor settings (King and Mason 2001;Lloyd 2005), and the effects of such investments on gender gaps in child health are known (e.g., Hill and Upchurch 1995). Less well known is the extent to which gender gaps in resources that are accrued across the life course account for gender gaps in later-life health, despite known gender differences in the risks of illness, disability, and death. Demographic research on later-life health also has focused on physical conditions, even though dementia and neuropsychiatric disorders account for a large (~3%) and growing share of the disease burden worldwide (World Health Organization [WHO] 2007).This article assesses the determinants of cognitive functioning among older women and men (e.g., those aged 50 and older) in Ismailia, Egypt. It explores whether and to what extent (1) women have poorer cognitive functioning than men, (2) cognitive resources in childhood and adulthood have net positive associations with cognitive functioning for women and men, and (3) differences in the amounts and effects of women's and men's cognitive resources account for differences in their cognitive functioning. Egypt is a superb setting in which to conduct this work because of long-standing gender gaps in opportunities across the life course (e.g., Yount 2001; Yount and Sibai forthcoming) and poor knowledge about their potential effects on later-life cognitive functioning. COGNITIVE RESOURCES ACROSS THE LIFE COURSE AND COGNITIVE AGINGResearch on cognitive aging reveals a strong association between increasing age and the onset of neuropathology and cognitive decline, especially after age 60; the pace of agerelated cognitive decline, however, can vary within and across age cohorts (e.g., Schaie 1994;Zhang et al. 1990;Zhou et al. 2006). Gerontologists have coined the term reserve

Gender differences in cognitive impairment among the old and the oldest‐old in China

“…For future research, we should pay close attention to the current old cohort of men and women, who have not developed cognitive impairment, but will face their oldest-old age in the near future, because according to life-course perspectives, later cohorts that potentially possess higher cognitive functions will replace older cohorts with poor cognitive performance. 17,26 We need to follow this old cohort to see if they develop cognitive impairment as high as the current oldest-old cohort, especially women, as the majority of old women still did not have access to formal education. For that reason, we might need to follow current middle-aged men and women in China who have had the full advantages of formal education, as well as employment opportunities, to explore if their life environments would make any differences in the onset of cognitive impairment as they age.…”

“…Investment in women's educational attainment, spending an active lifestyle in a stimulating environment and involvement in cognitively challenging activities might help alleviate gender disparities. For future research, we should pay close attention to the current old cohort of men and women, who have not developed cognitive impairment, but will face their oldest‐old age in the near future, because according to life‐course perspectives, later cohorts that potentially possess higher cognitive functions will replace older cohorts with poor cognitive performance . We need to follow this old cohort to see if they develop cognitive impairment as high as the current oldest‐old cohort, especially women, as the majority of old women still did not have access to formal education.…”

Educational Differences in Cognitive Life Expectancy Among Older Adults in Brazil

“…33 As well, in countries marked by sex differences in education, increasing access and quality of education has the potential to improve women's cognitive health, in line with previous studies showing that women have a higher risk of CI and dementia than men. 34,35 For instance, Yount 36 found that 83% of the sex gap in mean MMSE scores could be attributable to sex differences in attributes across the life course, mainly education. Based on the baseline of SABE studies, Maurer 12 found that more than half of the overall difference in latelife cognition was a result of sex differences in educational attainment.…”

Childhood infectious diseases and old age cognitive functioning: a nationally representative sample of community-dwelling older adults

“…Two studies found that retrospective reports of better global childhood health were associated with improved cognitive functioning in old age (Luo and Waite, 2005;Yi et al, 2007). Three others studies reported a null association (Barnes et al, 2012;Yount, 2016;Zhang et al, 2018). A single study examined the association between childhood infectious diseases and late-life cognitive functioning and showed mixed disease effects (Case and Paxson, 2009).…”